The gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-inducible GTP-binding protein IGTP is necessary for toxoplasma vacuolar disruption and induces parasite egression in IFN-gamma-stimulated astrocytes.

Toxoplasma gondii is a common central nervous system infection in individuals with immunocompromised immune systems, such as AIDS patients. Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) is the main cytokine mediating protection against T. gondii. Our previous studies found that IFN-gamma significantly inhibits T. gondii in astrocytes via an IFN-gamma-inducible GTP-binding protein (IGTP)-dependent mechanism. The IGTP-dependent-, IFN-gamma-stimulated inhibition is not understood, but recent studies found that IGTP induces disruption of the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) in macrophages. In the current study, we have further investigated the mechanism of IFN-gamma inhibition and the role of IGTP in the vacuolar disruption in murine astrocytes. Vacuolar disruption was found to be dependent upon IGTP, as PV disruption was not observed in IGTP-deficient (IGTP(-/-)) astrocytes and PV disruption could be induced in IGTP(-/-) astrocytes transfected with IGTP. Live-cell imaging studies using green fluorescent protein-IGTP found that IGTP is delivered to the PV via the host cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER) early after invasion and that IGTP condenses into vesicle-like structures on the vacuole just prior to PV disruption, suggesting that IGTP is involved in PV disruption. Intravacuolar movement of the parasite occurred just prior to PV disruption. In some instances, IFN-gamma induced parasite egression. Electron microscopy and immunofluorescence studies indicate that the host cell ER fuses with the PV prior to vacuolar disruption. On the basis of these results, we postulate a mechanism by which ER/PV fusion is a crucial event in PV disruption. Fusion of the ER with the PV, releasing calcium into the vacuole, may also be the mechanism by which intravacuolar parasite movement and IFN-gamma-induced parasite egression occur.

Growth and development of Toxoplasma gondii in human neurons and astrocytes.

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is one of the most common opportunistic infections affecting the central nervous system (CNS) in AIDS patients. Disease results from a reactivation of a latent infection in the brain resulting in a severe and necrotizing encephalitis. In this study we infected a primary culture from human fetal brain with T. gondii and studied the behavior of both the active and latent stages in this culture system. We found that the active (tachyzoite) stage of T. gondii can infect both astrocytes and neurons. However, a higher percentage of astrocytes were infected than neurons. Additionally, astrocytes were found to support more replication of T. gondii than did neurons. Both astrocytes and neurons also supported the cyst stage, found in the latent infections. These data indicate that astrocytes are the host cells supporting most of the replication of T. gondii in the brain in reactivated infections, but both host cell types may be able to support the cyst stage in latent infections. However, evidence indicates that cysts formed in astrocytes may be distinct from neuronal cysts. These findings may have relevance to reactivation of latent T. gondii infections in AIDS patients.

Association of host cell intermediate filaments with Toxoplasma gondii cysts in murine astrocytes in vitro.

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that is a common opportunistic infection of AIDS patients where it causes a severe and often fatal encephalitis. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS patients results from a reactivation of the cyst stage of Toxoplasma gondii in the brain. A previous study found an association of host cell intermediate filaments with parasitophorous vacuoles and some studies have suggested the host cell cytoskeletal elements are incorporated into the cyst wall. In this study, the interaction of glial filaments with Toxoplasma gondii cysts was studied in cysts derived in vitro in mouse astrocytes and in cysts isolated from mouse brains. Glial filaments, detected by immunostaining of the glial fibrillary acidic protein, were found to accumulate around the perimeter of the cysts as they developed in mouse astrocytes. Transmission electron microscopy revealed a layer of glial filaments was wrapped around the cytoplasmic side of the cyst. The glial filaments were present in close apposition to the cyst wall and arranged around the cysts in a concentric layer, measuring 5-10 microns in thickness. The layer of glial filaments excluded host cell mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum from the cytoplasmic surface of the cyst. Colocalisation of glial fibrillary acidic protein and the cyst wall via confocal and immunoelectron microscopy, confirmed that there was no glial fibrillary acidic protein present within the cyst wall. The cyst wall of cysts isolated from mouse brains were also found to be negative for glial fibrillary acidic protein. In conclusion, we found no evidence of structural integration of the host cell intermediate filaments in the cyst wall, but glial filaments were found to encase the cysts in the host cell during cyst development in host cells in vitro. The glial filaments wrapping of cysts may play a role in bradyzoite differentiation and/or cyst stabilisation in the host cell cytoplasm.

Host Cell Preference of Toxoplasma gondii Cysts in Murine Brain: A Confocal Study.

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that is widely prevalent in humans and typically results in a chronic infection characterized by cysts located predominantly in the central nervous system. In immunosuppressed hosts, such as patients with HIV infection, the infection can be reactivated from the cysts in the brain resulting in a severe and potentially fatal encephalitis. Studies suggest that the chronic infection may also have neuropathological and behavioral effects in immune competent hosts. An improved understanding of tissue cyst behavior is of importance for understanding both the reactivation as well as the neurophysiological consequences of chronic infection. In vivo studies have identified neurons as host cells for cysts but in vitro studies have found that astrocytes can also foster development of the cysts. In this study we have addressed the question of which neural cell tissue cysts of T. gondii reside during chronic infection using a mouse model. Mice were infected with Me49 Strain T. gondii and the intracellular localization of the cysts analyzed during the development and establishment of a chronic infection at 1, 2, and 6 months post infection. Brains were fixed, cryosectioned, and stained with FITC-Dolichos biflorans to identify the Toxoplasma cysts and they were labeled with cell specific antibodies to neurons or astrocytes and then analyzed using confocal fluorescence microscopy. Cysts were found to occur almost exclusively in neurons throughout chronic infection. No cysts were identified in astrocytes, using the astrocyte marker, GFAP. Astrocyte interactions with neuronal-cysts, however, were frequently observed.

Overcoating of Toxoplasma parasitophorous vacuoles with host cell vimentin type intermediate filaments.

The interaction between the Toxoplasma parasitophorous vacuole and vimentin-type intermediate filaments in Vero cells was investigated via immunofluorescence microscopy. A significant rearrangement of host cell vimentin around the Toxoplasma parasitophorous vacuoles occurs throughout the course of infection. Host cell vimentin associates with the parasitophorous vacuoles within an hour after invasion. This vimentin overcoating of the vacuole is initiated at the host cell nuclear surface. During parasite multiplication, vimentin retains a closely defined association with the cytosolic surface of the parasitophorous vacuole. In addition, the vimentin intermediate filaments originating from the host cell nuclear surface are progressively rearranged around the enlarging parasitophorous compartment. During infections, the order of vimentin cytoskeleton is normal throughout the cell and appears redefined only at the vicinity of the parasitophorous vacuole. Depolymerization of the intermediate filaments was achieved with the phosphatase inhibitors okadaic acid and calyculin A. Disruption of the intermediate filament networks resulted in displacement of the parasitophorous vacuoles from the host cell nuclear surface. The data indicate that host cell vimentin binds to the Toxoplasma parasitophorous vacuoles and that the host intermediate filament network serves to dock the parasite compartment to the host cell nuclear surface.

Investigation into the mechanism of gamma interferon-mediated inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii in murine astrocytes.

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that is a common opportunistic pathogen of the central nervous system in AIDS patients. Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) alone or in combination with interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, or tumor necrosis factor alpha significantly inhibits the growth of T. gondii in murine astrocytes, suggesting these are important nonimmune effector cells in the brain. Inhibition was found to be independent of a nitric oxide-mediated or tryptophan starvation mechanism. Both reactive oxygen intermediates and iron deprivation are IFN-gamma-mediated mechanisms known to operate against intracellular parasites in other cell types. Astrocytes generated from mice genetically deficient in the production of reactive oxygen intermediates (phox(-/-) mice) were found to inhibit growth of T. gondii when stimulated with IFN-gamma alone or in combination with other cytokines. The reactive oxygen inhibitor catalase and the reactive oxygen scavengers mannitol and thiourea failed to reverse the IFN-gamma-induced inhibition of T. gondii in astrocytes. These data indicate that IFN-gamma-induced inhibition in astrocytes is independent of reactive oxygen intermediates. IFN-gamma-induced inhibition could not be reversed by the addition of iron salts, ferric citrate, ferric nitrate, or ferric transferrin. Pretreatment of astrocytes with desferrioxamine also did not induce the inhibition of T. gondii. These data indicate that the mechanism of IFN-gamma inhibition was not due to iron deprivation. IFN-gamma had no effect on T. gondii invasion of astrocytes, but inhibition of growth and loss of tachyzoite vacuoles were evident in IFN-gamma-treated astrocytes by 24 h after invasion. Overall, these data suggest that IFN-gamma-activated astrocytes inhibit T. gondii by an as-yet-unknown mechanism.

Gamma interferon-induced inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii in astrocytes is mediated by IGTP.

Toxoplasma gondii is an important pathogen in the central nervous system, causing a severe and often fatal encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) is the main cytokine preventing reactivation of Toxoplasma encephalitis in the brain. Microglia are important IFN-gamma-activated effector cells controlling the growth of T. gondii in the brain via a nitric oxide (NO)-mediated mechanism. IFN-gamma can also activate astrocytes to inhibit the growth of T. gondii. Previous studies found that the mechanism in murine astrocytes is independent of NO and all other known anti-Toxoplasma mechanisms. In this study we investigated the role of IGTP, a recently identified IFN-gamma-regulated gene, in IFN-gamma inhibition of T. gondii in murine astrocytes. Primary astrocytes were cultivated from IGTP-deficient mice, treated with IFN-gamma, and then tested for anti-Toxoplasma activity. In wild-type astrocytes T. gondii growth was significantly inhibited by IFN-gamma, whereas in astrocytes from IGTP-deficient mice IFN-gamma did not cause a significant inhibition of growth. Immunoblot analysis confirmed that IFN-gamma induced significant levels of IGTP in wild-type murine astrocytes within 24 h. These results indicate that IGTP plays a central role in the IFN-gamma-induced inhibition of T. gondii in murine astrocytes.

Evidence for heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins in Toxoplasma gondii.

Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular protozoan parasite, resides within a host-derived vacuole that is rapidly modified by a parasite-secreted membranous tubular network. In this study we investigated the involvement of heterotrimeric G proteins in the secretory pathway of T. gondii. Aluminum fluoride (AlFn), a specific activator of heterotrimeric G proteins, induced secretion from isolated tachyzoites of T. gondii in vitro, as seen by light optics and electron microscopy. In Western blot analyses, antibodies to G protein alpha subunits reacted with 39-42 kDa proteins from T. gondii isolates. Antibodies to G(o) alpha and Gs alpha coupled to the fluorescent probe fluorescein isothiocyanate localized to the paranuclear region of T. gondii. Gi3 alpha immunoprobes were confined to the cytoplasmic matrix of T. gondii and also labeled the parasitophorous vesicle. Fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated GA/1, an antipeptide antisera directed toward the GTP binding site common to G protein alpha subunits, was confined to the lateral cytoplasmic domain of the parasites where secretion is most prominent. In time-sequence studies using the GA/1 probe, the immunoreactive material shifted position during invasion of target cell to areas of active secretion.

Effect of cytokines on growth of Toxoplasma gondii in murine astrocytes.

Cytokines play a significant role in the regulation of Toxoplasma gondii in the central nervous system. Cytokine-activated microglia are important host defense cells in central nervous system infections. Recent evidence indicates that astrocytes can also be activated by cytokines to inhibit intracellular pathogens. In this study, we examined the effect of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1 on the growth of T. gondii in a primary murine astrocyte culture. Pretreatment of astrocytes with IFN-gamma resulted in 65% inhibition of T. gondii growth. Neither TNF-alpha, IL-1, nor IL-6 alone had any effect on T. gondii growth. IFN-gamma in combination with either TNF-alpha, IL-1, or IL-6 caused a 75 to 80% inhibition of growth. While nitric oxide was produced by astrocytes treated with these cytokines, inhibition of T. gondii growth was not reversed by the addition of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-arginine. Furthermore, IFN-gamma in combination with IL-1, IL-6, or TNF-alpha also induced inhibition in astrocytes derived from syngeneic mice deficient in the enzyme inducible nitric oxide synthase. This finding suggests that the mechanism of cytokine inhibition is not nitric oxide mediated. Similarly, the addition of tryptophan had no effect on inhibition, indicating that the mechanism was not mediated via induction of the enzyme indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase. The mechanism of inhibition remains to be elucidated. Results from this study demonstrate that cytokine-activated astrocytes are capable of significantly inhibiting the growth of T. gondii. These data indicate that astrocytes may be important host defense cells in controlling toxoplasmosis in the brain.

Initial characterization of CST1, a Toxoplasma gondii cyst wall glycoprotein.

Toxoplasma gondii is an important protozoan pathogen of humans that can cause encephalitis in immunocompromised individuals such as those with AIDS. This encephalitis is due to reactivation of latent infection in T. gondii-seropositive patients. Latent organisms survive within tissue cysts, which are specialized parasitophorous vacuoles containing bradyzoites. The cyst wall of this structure is produced by modification of the parasitophorous vacuole by the parasite and is important in cyst survival. The components of the cyst wall have been poorly characterized. By using immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy, we have identified a monoclonal antibody (MAb 93.18) that reacts with the cyst wall. This antibody recognizes a 116-kDa glycoprotein, which we have termed CST1, containing sugar residues that bind Dolichos biflorans lectin (DBA). CST1 is distinct from T. gondii antigen labeled with succinyl Triticum vulgare lectin (S-WGA) and represents the major DBA-binding component in T. gondii. The carbohydrate components of the tissue cyst, such as CST1, are probably important in both providing stability and facilitating persistence in its host. As is seen in the carbohydrate capsules of fungi, glycoproteins in the T. gondii cyst wall may protect cysts from the immune response of the host. Further characterization of the formation of the cyst wall and its components should lead to insights into the mechanism of tissue cyst persistence and may suggest novel therapeutic approaches to eliminate tissue cysts of this organism.

Protein-Membrane Interaction Is Essential to Normal Assembly of the Microsporidian Spore Invasion Tube.

Changes in the protein-membrane interaction during assembly of the microsporidian spore invasion tubes were followed by electron microscopy, by video imaging with differential interference contrast (DIC), and by the fluorescent probes 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and 9-diethylamino-5H-benzo{alpha}phenoxazine-5-one (Nile red). Microsporidian spore invasion tubes form by the eversion of polar filament protein (PFP) and presumptive extrusion apparatus (EAP) membrane. Both of these components are essential for formation of the invasion tube. The results indicate that the behavior of the EAP membrane is greatly affected by the position and chemical state of the PFP at the eversion area that constitutes the advancing tube terminal assembly site (TAS). Visual evidence indicates that the EAP membrane is the vehicle for PFP and that this membrane also provides the envelope that surrounds the sporoplasm after its passage through the invasion tube.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection (Chagas' disease) of mice causes activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and expression of endothelin-1 in the myocardium.

Chagas' disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is an important cause of heart disease. Previous studies from this laboratory revealed that microvascular spasm and myocardial ischemia were observed in infected mice. Infection of endothelial cells with this parasite increased the synthesis of biologically active endothelin-1 (ET-1). Therefore. in the myocardium of T. cruzi-infected mice, we examined ET-1 expression and the p42/44-mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)-AP-1 pathway that regulates the expression of ET-1. There was parasitism and myonecrosis in the myocardium of infected C57BL/6 mice. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis revealed elevated mRNA expression of transcription factor AP-1 (c-jun and c-fos) and increased AP-1 DNA binding activity as determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Western blot analysis demonstrated an increase in the phosphorylated forms of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2). ET-1 mRNA was upregulated in the myocardium of infected mice. Immunohistochemical and immunoelectron microscopy using anti-ET-1 antibody detected increased expression in cardiac myocytes and endothelium of these mice. These data suggest that ET-1 contributes to chagasic cardiomyopathy and that the mechanism of the increased expression of ET-1 is a result of the activation of the MAPK pathway by T. cruzi infection.