Stable Chromosome Condensation Revealed by Chromosome Conformation Capture.

Chemical cross-linking and DNA sequencing have revealed regions of intra-chromosomal interaction, referred to as topologically associating domains (TADs), interspersed with regions of little or no interaction, in interphase nuclei. We find that TADs and the regions between them correspond with the bands and interbands of polytene chromosomes of Drosophila. We further establish the conservation of TADs between polytene and diploid cells of Drosophila. From direct measurements on light micrographs of polytene chromosomes, we then deduce the states of chromatin folding in the diploid cell nucleus. Two states of folding, fully extended fibers containing regulatory regions and promoters, and fibers condensed up to 10-fold containing coding regions of active genes, constitute the euchromatin of the nuclear interior. Chromatin fibers condensed up to 30-fold, containing coding regions of inactive genes, represent the heterochromatin of the nuclear periphery. A convergence of molecular analysis with direct observation thus reveals the architecture of interphase chromosomes.

Wing tips: The wing disc as a platform for studying Hedgehog signaling.

Hedgehog (Hh) signal transduction is necessary for the development of most mammalian tissues and can go awry and cause birth defects or cancer. Hh signaling was initially described in Drosophila, and much of what we know today about mammalian Hh signaling was directly guided by discoveries in the fly. Indeed, Hh signaling is a wonderful example of the use of non-vertebrate model organisms to make basic discoveries that lead to new disease treatment. The first pharmaceutical to treat hyperactive Hh signaling in Basal Cell Carcinoma was released in 2012, approximately 30 years after the isolation of Hh mutants in Drosophila. The study of Hh signaling has been greatly facilitated by the imaginal wing disc, a tissue with terrific experimental advantages. Studies using the wing disc have led to an understanding of Hh ligand processing, packaging into particles for transmission, secretion, reception, signal transduction, target gene activation, and tissue patterning. Here we describe the imaginal wing disc, how Hh patterns this tissue, and provide methods to use wing discs to study Hh signaling in Drosophila. The tools and approaches we highlight form the cornerstone of research efforts in many laboratories that use Drosophila to study Hh signaling, and are essential for ongoing discoveries.

Condensin II promotes the formation of chromosome territories by inducing axial compaction of polyploid interphase chromosomes.

The eukaryotic nucleus is both spatially and functionally partitioned. This organization contributes to the maintenance, expression, and transmission of genetic information. Though our ability to probe the physical structure of the genome within the nucleus has improved substantially in recent years, relatively little is known about the factors that regulate its organization or the mechanisms through which specific organizational states are achieved. Here, we show that Drosophila melanogaster Condensin II induces axial compaction of interphase chromosomes, globally disrupts interchromosomal interactions, and promotes the dispersal of peri-centric heterochromatin. These Condensin II activities compartmentalize the nucleus into discrete chromosome territories and indicate commonalities in the mechanisms that regulate the spatial structure of the genome during mitosis and interphase.

Galactokinase 1 is the source of elevated galactose-1-phosphate and cerebrosides are modestly reduced in a mouse model of classic galactosemia.

Classic galactosemia (CG) arises from loss-of-function mutations in the Galt gene, which codes for the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (GALT), a central component in galactose metabolism. The neonatal fatality associated with CG can be prevented by galactose dietary restriction, but for decades it has been known that limiting galactose intake is not a cure and patients often have lasting complications. Even on a low-galactose diet, GALT's substrate galactose-1-phosphate (Gal1P) is elevated and one hypothesis is that elevated Gal1P is a driver of pathology. Here we show that Gal1P levels were elevated above wildtype (WT) in Galt mutant mice, while mice doubly mutant for Galt and the gene encoding galactokinase 1 (Galk1) had normal Gal1P levels. This indicates that GALK1 is necessary for the elevated Gal1P in CG. Another hypothesis to explain the pathology is that an inability to metabolize galactose leads to diminished or disrupted galactosylation of proteins or lipids. Our studies reveal that levels of a subset of cerebrosides-galactosylceramide 24:1, sulfatide 24:1, and glucosylceramide 24:1-were modestly decreased compared to WT. In contrast, gangliosides were unaltered. The observed reduction in these 24:1 cerebrosides may be relevant to the clinical pathology of CG, since the cerebroside galactosylceramide is an important structural component of myelin, the 24:1 species is the most abundant in myelin, and irregularities in white matter, of which myelin is a constituent, have been observed in patients with CG. Therefore, impaired cerebroside production may be a contributing factor to the brain damage that is a common clinical feature of the human disease.

Condensin II resolves chromosomal associations to enable anaphase I segregation in Drosophila male meiosis.

Several meiotic processes ensure faithful chromosome segregation to create haploid gametes. Errors to any one of these processes can lead to zygotic aneuploidy with the potential for developmental abnormalities. During prophase I of Drosophila male meiosis, each bivalent condenses and becomes sequestered into discrete chromosome territories. Here, we demonstrate that two predicted condensin II subunits, Cap-H2 and Cap-D3, are required to promote territory formation. In mutants of either subunit, territory formation fails and chromatin is dispersed throughout the nucleus. Anaphase I is also abnormal in Cap-H2 mutants as chromatin bridges are found between segregating heterologous and homologous chromosomes. Aneuploid sperm may be generated from these defects as they occur at an elevated frequency and are genotypically consistent with anaphase I segregation defects. We propose that condensin II-mediated prophase I territory formation prevents and/or resolves heterologous chromosomal associations to alleviate their potential interference in anaphase I segregation. Furthermore, condensin II-catalyzed prophase I chromosome condensation may be necessary to resolve associations between paired homologous chromosomes of each bivalent. These persistent chromosome associations likely consist of DNA entanglements, but may be more specific as anaphase I bridging was rescued by mutations in the homolog conjunction factor teflon. We propose that the consequence of condensin II mutations is a failure to resolve heterologous and homologous associations mediated by entangled DNA and/or homolog conjunction factors. Furthermore, persistence of homologous and heterologous interchromosomal associations lead to anaphase I chromatin bridging and the generation of aneuploid gametes.

Developmental phosphoproteomics identifies the kinase CK2 as a driver of Hedgehog signaling and a therapeutic target in medulloblastoma.

A major limitation of targeted cancer therapy is the rapid emergence of drug resistance, which often arises through mutations at or downstream of the drug target or through intrinsic resistance of subpopulations of tumor cells. Medulloblastoma (MB), the most common pediatric brain tumor, is no exception, and MBs that are driven by sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling are particularly aggressive and drug-resistant. To find new drug targets and therapeutics for MB that may be less susceptible to common resistance mechanisms, we used a developmental phosphoproteomics approach in murine granule neuron precursors (GNPs), the developmental cell of origin of MB. The protein kinase CK2 emerged as a driver of hundreds of phosphorylation events during the proliferative, MB-like stage of GNP growth, including the phosphorylation of three of the eight proteins commonly amplified in MB. CK2 was critical to the stabilization and activity of the transcription factor GLI2, a late downstream effector in SHH signaling. CK2 inhibitors decreased the viability of primary SHH-type MB patient cells in culture and blocked the growth of murine MB tumors that were resistant to currently available Hh inhibitors, thereby extending the survival of tumor-bearing mice. Because of structural interactions, one CK2 inhibitor (CX-4945) inhibited both wild-type and mutant CK2, indicating that this drug may avoid at least one common mode of acquired resistance. These findings suggest that CK2 inhibitors may be effective for treating patients with MB and show how phosphoproteomics may be used to gain insight into developmental biology and pathology.

Regulation of ribosome biogenesis by nucleostemin 3 promotes local and systemic growth in Drosophila.

Nucleostemin 3 (NS3) is an evolutionarily conserved protein with profound roles in cell growth and viability. Here we analyze cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous growth control roles of NS3 in Drosophila and demonstrate its GTPase activity using genetic and biochemical assays. Two null alleles of ns3, and RNAi, demonstrate the necessity of NS3 for cell autonomous growth. A hypomorphic allele highlights the hypersensitivity of neurons to lowered NS3 function. We propose that NS3 is the functional ortholog of yeast and human Lsg1, which promotes release of the nuclear export adapter from the large ribosomal subunit. Release of the adapter and its recycling to the nucleus are essential for sustained production of ribosomes. The ribosome biogenesis role of NS3 is essential for proper rates of translation in all tissues and is necessary for functions of growth-promoting neurons.

Maintenance of interphase chromosome compaction and homolog pairing in Drosophila is regulated by the condensin cap-h2 and its partner Mrg15.

Dynamic regulation of chromosome structure and organization is critical for fundamental cellular processes such as gene expression and chromosome segregation. Condensins are conserved chromosome-associated proteins that regulate a variety of chromosome dynamics, including axial shortening, lateral compaction, and homolog pairing. However, how the in vivo activities of condensins are regulated and how functional interactors target condensins to chromatin are not well understood. To better understand how Drosophila melanogaster condensin is regulated, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen and identified the chromo-barrel domain protein Mrg15 to interact with the Cap-H2 condensin subunit. Genetic interactions demonstrate that Mrg15 function is required for Cap-H2-mediated unpairing of polytene chromosomes in ovarian nurse cells and salivary gland cells. In diploid tissues, transvection assays demonstrate that Mrg15 inhibits transvection at Ubx and cooperates with Cap-H2 to antagonize transvection at yellow. In cultured cells, we show that levels of chromatin-bound Cap-H2 protein are partially dependent on Mrg15 and that Cap-H2-mediated homolog unpairing is suppressed by RNA interference depletion of Mrg15. Thus, maintenance of interphase chromosome compaction and homolog pairing status requires both Mrg15 and Cap-H2. We propose a model where the Mrg15 and Cap-H2 protein-protein interaction may serve to recruit Cap-H2 to chromatin and facilitates compaction of interphase chromatin.

Chromosome alignment and transvection are antagonized by condensin II.

Polytene chromosome structure is a characteristic of some polyploid cells where several to thousands of chromatids are closely associated with perfect alignment of homologous DNA sequences. Here, we show that Drosophila condensin II promotes disassembly of polytene structure into chromosomal components. Condensin II also negatively regulates transvection, a process whereby certain alleles are influenced transcriptionally via interallelic physical associations. We propose that condensin II restricts trans-chromosomal interactions that affect transcription through its ability to spatially separate aligned interphase chromosomes.