Chromium Cycling in Redox-Stratified Basins Challenges δ53Cr Paleoredox Proxy Applications.

Chromium stable isotope composition (δ53Cr) is a promising tracer for redox conditions throughout Earth's history; however, the geochemical controls of δ53Cr have not been assessed in modern redox-stratified basins. We present new chromium (Cr) concentration and δ53Cr data in dissolved, sinking particulate, and sediment samples from the redox-stratified Lake Cadagno (Switzerland), a modern Proterozoic ocean analog. These data demonstrate isotope fractionation during incomplete (non-quantitative) reduction and removal of Cr above the chemocline, driving isotopically light Cr accumulation in euxinic deep waters. Sediment authigenic Cr is isotopically distinct from overlying waters but comparable to average continental crust. New and published data from other redox-stratified basins show analogous patterns. This challenges assumptions from δ53Cr paleoredox applications that quantitative Cr reduction and removal limits isotope fractionation. Instead, fractionation from non-quantitative Cr removal leads to sedimentary records offset from overlying waters and not reflecting high δ53Cr from oxidative continental weathering.

Elemental Stoichiometry and Photophysiology Regulation of Synechococcus sp. PCC7002 Under Increasing Severity of Chronic Iron Limitation.

Iron (Fe) is an essential cofactor for many metabolic enzymes of photoautotrophs. Although Fe limits phytoplankton productivity in broad areas of the ocean, phytoplankton have adapted their metabolism and growth to survive in these conditions. Using the euryhaline cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC7002, we investigated the physiological responses to long-term acclimation to four levels of Fe availability representative of the contemporary ocean (36.7, 3.83, 0.47 and 0.047 pM Fe'). With increasing severity of Fe limitation, Synechococcus sp. cells gradually decreased their volume and growth while increasing their energy allocation into organic carbon and nitrogen cellular pools. Furthermore, the total cellular content of pigments decreased. Additionally, with increasing severity of Fe limitation, intertwined responses of PSII functional cross-section (σPSII), re-oxidation time of the plastoquinone primary acceptor QA (τ) and non-photochemical quenching revealed a shift in the photophysiological response between mild to strong Fe limitation compared with severe limitation. Under mild and strong Fe limitation, there was a decrease in linear electron transport accompanied by progressive loss of state transitions. Under severe Fe limitation, state transitions seemed to be largely supplanted by alternative electron pathways. In addition, mechanisms to dissipate energy excess and minimize oxidative stress associated with high irradiances increased with increasing severity of Fe limitation. Overall, our results establish the sequence of physiological strategies adopted by the cells under increasing severity of chronic Fe limitation, within a range of Fe concentrations relevant to modern ocean biogeochemistry.

Saccharides enhance iron bioavailability to Southern Ocean phytoplankton.

Iron limits primary productivity in vast regions of the ocean. Given that marine phytoplankton contribute up to 40% of global biological carbon fixation, it is important to understand what parameters control the availability of iron (iron bioavailability) to these organisms. Most studies on iron bioavailability have focused on the role of siderophores; however, eukaryotic phytoplankton do not produce or release siderophores. Here, we report on the pivotal role of saccharides--which may act like an organic ligand--in enhancing iron bioavailability to a Southern Ocean cultured diatom, a prymnesiophyte, as well as to natural populations of eukaryotic phytoplankton. Addition of a monosaccharide (>2 nM of glucuronic acid, GLU) to natural planktonic assemblages from both the polar front and subantarctic zones resulted in an increase in iron bioavailability for eukaryotic phytoplankton, relative to bacterioplankton. The enhanced iron bioavailability observed for several groups of eukaryotic phytoplankton (i.e., cultured and natural populations) using three saccharides, suggests it is a common phenomenon. Increased iron bioavailability resulted from the combination of saccharides forming highly bioavailable organic associations with iron and increasing iron solubility, mainly as colloidal iron. As saccharides are ubiquitous, present at nanomolar to micromolar concentrations, and produced by biota in surface waters, they also satisfy the prerequisites to be important constituents of the poorly defined "ligand soup," known to weakly bind iron. Our findings point to an additional type of organic ligand, controlling iron bioavailability to eukaryotic phytoplankton--a key unknown in iron biogeochemistry.

Toxicity of arsenic species to three freshwater organisms and biotransformation of inorganic arsenic by freshwater phytoplankton (Chlorella sp. CE-35).

In the environment, arsenic (As) exists in a number of chemical species, and arsenite (As(III)) and arsenate (As(V)) dominate in freshwater systems. Toxicity of As species to aquatic organisms is complicated by their interaction with chemicals in water such as phosphate that can influence the bioavailability and uptake of As(V). In the present study, the toxicities of As(III), As(V) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) to three freshwater organisms representing three phylogenetic groups: a phytoplankton (Chlorella sp. strain CE-35), a floating macrophyte (Lemna disperma) and a cladoceran grazer (Ceriodaphnia cf. dubia), were determined using acute and growth inhibition bioassays (EC50) at a range of total phosphate (TP) concentrations in OECD medium. The EC50 values of As(III), As(V) and DMA were 27 ± 10, 1.15 ± 0.04 and 19 ± 3 mg L(-1) for Chlorella sp. CE-35; 0.57 ± 0.16, 2.3 ± 0.2 and 56 ± 15 mg L(-1) for L. disperma, and 1.58 ± 0.05, 1.72 ± 0.01 and 5.9 ± 0.1 mg L(-1) for C. cf. dubia, respectively. The results showed that As(III) was more toxic than As(V) to L. disperma; however, As(V) was more toxic than As(III) to Chlorella sp. CE-35. The toxicities of As(III) and As(V) to C. cf. dubia were statistically similar (p>0.05). DMA was less toxic than iAs species to L. disperma and C. cf. dubia, but more toxic than As(III) to Chlorella sp. CE-35. The toxicity of As(V) to Chlorella sp. CE-35 and L. disperma decreased with increasing TP concentrations in the growth medium. Phosphate concentrations did not influence the toxicity of As(III) to either organism. Chlorella sp. CE-35 showed the ability to reduce As(V) to As(III), indicating a substantial influence of phytoplankton on As biogeochemistry in freshwater aquatic systems.

Iron Biogeochemistry in Aquatic Systems: From Source to Bioavailability.

Iron (Fe) is an essential trace element for several key metabolic processes in phytoplankton; however Fe is present in low concentration in many aquatic systems including vast oceanic regions and large lakes. In these systems, Fe can limit the growth of phytoplankton and atmospheric carbon dioxide biological fixation. Indeed Fe limitation exerts a global impact on the carbon cycle and the imprint of aquatic systems on our climate. In order to understand how aquatic systems function and increase our ability to predict their response to changing conditions, it is therefore paramount to understand when and how Fe controls operate. This review presents the complex relationship between Fe chemistry and the biology of surface waters to highlight the parameters defining the forms of Fe that are accessible for phytoplankton growth (or bioavailable). Particular attention is given to the identification of Fe sources and Fe organic complexation as these, in conjunction with biological recycling and remineralisation, mostly control Fe residence time, chemistry and bioavailability.

Genomic insights into the coupling of a Chlorella-like microeukaryote and sulfur bacteria in the chemocline of permanently stratified Lake Cadagno.

Meromictic Lake Cadagno is a permanently stratified system with a persistent microbial bloom within the oxic-anoxic boundary called the chemocline. The association between oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis within the chemocline has been known for at least two decades. Although anoxygenic purple and green sulfur bacteria have been well studied, reports on oxygenic phytoplankton have remained sparse since their discovery in the 1920s. Nearly a century later, this study presents the first near-complete genome of a photosynthetic microbial eukaryote from the chemocline of Lake Cadagno, provisionally named Chlorella-like MAG. The 18.9 Mbp nuclear genome displays a high GC content (71.5%), and the phylogenetic placement suggests that it is a novel species of the genus Chlorella of Chlorophytes. Functional annotation of the Chlorella-like metagenome-assembled genome predicted 10,732 protein-coding genes, with an approximate 0.6% proportion potentially involved in carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen (C, N, and S) metabolism. In addition to C4 photosynthesis, this study detected genes for heat shock proteins (HSPs) in the Chlorella-like algae, consistent with the other Chlorella species. Altogether, the genomic insights in this study suggest the cooperation of photosynthetic algae with phototrophic sulfur bacteria via C, N, and S metabolism, which may aid their collective persistence in the Lake Cadagno chemocline. Furthermore, this work additionally presents the chloroplast genome of Cryptomonas-like species, which was likely to be presumed as cyanobacteria in previous studies because of the presence of phycobilisomes.

Chasing iron bioavailability in the Southern Ocean: Insights from Phaeocystis antarctica and iron speciation.

Dissolved iron (dFe) availability limits the uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the Southern Ocean (SO) biological pump. Hence, any change in bioavailable dFe in this region can directly influence climate. On the basis of Fe uptake experiments with Phaeocystis antarctica, we show that the range of dFe bioavailability in natural samples is wider (<1 to ~200% compared to free inorganic Fe') than previously thought, with higher bioavailability found near glacial sources. The degree of bioavailability varied regardless of in situ dFe concentration and depth, challenging the consensus that sole dFe concentrations can be used to predict Fe uptake in modeling studies. Further, our data suggest a disproportionately major role of biologically mediated ligands and encourage revisiting the role of humic substances in influencing marine Fe biogeochemical cycling in the SO. Last, we describe a linkage between in situ dFe bioavailability and isotopic signatures that, we anticipate, will stimulate future research.

Iron and manganese co-limit the growth of two phytoplankton groups dominant at two locations of the Drake Passage.

While it has been recently demonstrated that both iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) control Southern Ocean (SO) plankton biomass, how in particular Mn governs phytoplankton species composition remains yet unclear. This study, for the first time, highlights the importance of Mn next to Fe for growth of two key SO phytoplankton groups at two locations in the Drake Passage (West and East). Even though the bulk parameter chlorophyll a indicated Fe availability as main driver of both phytoplankton assemblages, the flow cytometric and microscopic analysis revealed FeMn co-limitation of a key phytoplankton group at each location: at West the dominant diatom Fragilariopsis and one subgroup of picoeukaryotes, which numerically dominated the East community. Hence, the limitation by both Fe and Mn and their divergent requirements among phytoplankton species and groups can be a key factor for shaping SO phytoplankton community structure.

Bacterial, Phytoplankton, and Viral Distributions and Their Biogeochemical Contexts in Meromictic Lake Cadagno Offer Insights into the Proterozoic Ocean Microbial Loop.

Lake Cadagno, a permanently stratified high-alpine lake with a persistent microbial bloom in its chemocline, has long been considered a model for the low-oxygen, high-sulfide Proterozoic ocean. Although the lake has been studied for over 25 years, the absence of concerted study of the bacteria, phytoplankton, and viruses, together with primary and secondary production, has hindered a comprehensive understanding of its microbial food web. Here, the identities, abundances, and productivity of microbes were evaluated in the context of Lake Cadagno biogeochemistry. Photosynthetic pigments together with 16S rRNA gene phylogenies suggest the prominence of eukaryotic phytoplankton chloroplasts, primarily chlorophytes. Chloroplasts closely related to those of high-alpine-adapted Ankyra judayi persisted with oxygen in the mixolimnion, where photosynthetic efficiency was high, while chloroplasts of Closteriopsis-related chlorophytes peaked in the chemocline and monimolimnion. The anoxygenic phototrophic sulfur bacterium Chromatium dominated the chemocline along with Lentimicrobium, a genus of known fermenters. Secondary production peaked in the chemocline, which suggested that anoxygenic primary producers depended on heterotrophic nutrient remineralization. The virus-to-microbe ratio peaked with phytoplankton abundances in the mixolimnion and were at a minimum where Chromatium abundance was highest, trends that suggest that viruses may play a role in the modulation of primary production. Through the combined analysis of bacterial, eukaryotic, viral, and biogeochemical spatial dynamics, we provide a comprehensive synthesis of the Lake Cadagno microbial loop. This study offers a new ecological perspective on how biological and geochemical connections may have occurred in the chemocline of the Proterozoic ocean, where eukaryotic microbial life is thought to have evolved. IMPORTANCE As a window into the past, this study offers insights into the potential role that microbial guilds may have played in the production and recycling of organic matter in ancient Proterozoic ocean chemoclines. The new observations described here suggest that chloroplasts of eukaryotic algae were persistent in the low-oxygen upper chemocline along with the purple and green sulfur bacteria known to dominate the lower half of the chemocline. This study provides the first insights into Lake Cadagno's viral ecology. High viral abundances suggested that viruses may be essential components of the chemocline, where their activity may result in the release and recycling of organic matter. The integration of diverse geochemical and biological data types provides a framework that lays the foundation to quantitatively resolve the processes performed by the discrete populations that comprise the microbial loop in this early anoxic ocean analogue.

Phytoplankton Responses to Bacterially Regenerated Iron in a Southern Ocean Eddy.

In the Subantarctic sector of the Southern Ocean, vertical entrainment of iron (Fe) triggers the seasonal productivity cycle but diminishing physical supply during the spring to summer transition forces microbial assemblages to rapidly acclimate. Here, we tested how phytoplankton and bacteria within an isolated eddy respond to different dissolved Fe (DFe)/ligand inputs. We used three treatments: one that mimicked the entrainment of new DFe (Fe-NEW), another in which DFe was supplied from bacterial regeneration of particles (Fe-REG), and a control with no addition of DFe (Fe-NO). After 6 days, 3.5 (Fe-NO, Fe-NEW) to 5-fold (Fe-REG) increases in Chlorophyll a were observed. These responses of the phytoplankton community were best explained by the differences between the treatments in the amount of DFe recycled during the incubation (Fe-REG, 15% recycled c.f. 40% Fe-NEW, 60% Fe-NO). This additional recycling was more likely mediated by bacteria. By day 6, bacterial production was comparable between Fe-NO and Fe-NEW but was approximately two-fold higher in Fe-REG. A preferential response of phytoplankton (haptophyte-dominated) relative to high nucleic acid (HNA) bacteria was also found in the Fe-REG treatment while the relative proportion of diatoms increased faster in the Fe-NEW and Fe-NO treatments. Comparisons between light and dark incubations further confirmed the competition between picophytoplankton and HNA for DFe. Overall, our results demonstrate great versatility by microorganisms to use different Fe sources that results in highly efficient Fe recycling within surface waters. This study also encourages future research to further investigate the interactions between functional groups of microbes (e.g. HNA and cyanobacteria) to better constraint modeling in Fe and carbon biogeochemical cycles.

Salp fecal pellets release more bioavailable iron to Southern Ocean phytoplankton than krill fecal pellets.

Over the last decades, it has been reported that the habitat of the Southern Ocean (SO) key species Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) has contracted to high latitudes, putatively due to reduced winter sea ice coverage, while salps as Salpa thompsoni have extended their dispersal to the former krill habitats. To date, the potential implications of this population shift on the biogeochemical cycling of the limiting micronutrient iron (Fe) and its bioavailability to SO phytoplankton has never been tested. Based on uptake of fecal pellet (FP)-released Fe by SO phytoplankton, this study highlights how efficiently krill and salps recycle Fe. To test this, we collected FPs of natural populations of salps and krill, added them to the same SO phytoplankton community, and measured the community's Fe uptake rates. Our results reveal that both FP additions yielded similar dissolved iron concentrations in the seawater. Per FP carbon added to the seawater, 4.8 ± 1.5 times more Fe was taken up by the same phytoplankton community from salp FP than from krill FP, suggesting that salp FP increased the Fe bioavailability, possibly through the release of ligands. With respect to the ongoing shift from krill to salps, the potential for carbon fixation of the Fe-limited SO could be strengthened in the future, representing a negative feedback to climate change.

Exopolymeric Substances Control Microbial Community Structure and Function by Contributing to both C and Fe Nutrition in Fe-Limited Southern Ocean Provinces.

Organic ligands such as exopolymeric substances (EPS) are known to form complexes with iron (Fe) and modulate phytoplankton growth. However, the effect of organic ligands on bacterial and viral communities remains largely unknown. Here, we assessed how Fe associated with organic ligands influences phytoplankton, microbial, and viral abundances and their diversity in the Southern Ocean. While the particulate organic carbon (POC) was modulated by Fe chemistry and bioavailability in the Drake Passage, the abundance and diversity of microbes and viruses were not governed by Fe bioavailability. Only following amendments with bacterial EPS did bacterial abundances increase, while phenotypic alpha diversity of bacterial and viral communities decreased. The latter was accompanied by significantly enhanced POC, pointing toward the relief of C limitation or other drivers of the microbial loop. Based on the literature and our findings, we propose a conceptual framework by which EPS may affect phytoplankton, bacteria, and viruses. Given the importance of the Southern Ocean for Earth's climate as well as the prevalence of viruses and their increasingly recognized impact on marine biogeochemistry and C cycling; the role of microbe-virus interactions on primary productivity in the Southern Ocean needs urgent attention.

Copper toxicity to blue mussel embryos (Mytilus galloprovincialis): The effect of natural dissolved organic matter on copper toxicity in estuarine waters.

Copper (Cu) is a naturally occurring micronutrient of eco-toxicological concern in aquatic ecosystems. Current knowledge of Cu-speciation and bioavailability in natural saline environments is insufficient to adequately inform environmental protection policy for estuarine systems. We assessed the combined effect of two of the main drivers of metal bioavailability, salinity and natural dissolved organic carbon (DOC), on Cu-speciation and associated Cu-toxicity to blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) embryos in a standard 48-h bioassay. We placed special emphasis on measurement of Cu-speciation rather than modelling. Cu-toxicity was found to be a function of DOC and salinity. The varying protective effect of different DOC-types suggests that estuarine DOC is more protective against Cu-toxicity than oceanic DOC. Salinity was negatively correlated with [Cu48-h-EC50], indicating a salinity-induced alteration in the physiology of the exposed mussel embryos and/or Cu-DOC-reactivity. These two assumptions were supported by (1) the relative uniformity of bioavailable copper ([Cu']) across similar salinity treatments despite considerable variation in [Cu48-h-EC50] and DOC-concentrations, and (2) the fact that Cu-toxicity and [Cu'] were slightly higher in the 35 salinity treatment compared to the 25 salinity treatment. Stripping voltammetry studies determined the presence of only one strong Cu-binding ligand class (i.e., L1), either actively or passively released by the exposed embryos. [L1] was found to be proportional to the total dissolved Cu-concentration ([CuT]), suggesting a protective effect of Cu-binding-ligands, in addition to the protective effect of DOC. There was also a strong positive correlation between [L1] and [Cu48-h-EC50], implying that electrochemically defined ligand concentrations along with measurements of [Cu'], DOC-quality, and salinity can be used as proxies for 48-h-EC50 Cu-values in estuarine waters, which may result in a significant improvement to risk assessments of Cu in estuarine systems.

Investigating the fate of copper in a laboratory-based toxicity test with embryos of Mytilus galloprovincialis: Copper mass balance of a closed bioassay.

The production of accurate and reliable data on metal toxicity during ecotoxicological bioassays is important for credible environmental risk assessments and management in aquatic environments. Actual measurements and reporting of contaminant concentrations in bioassays are, however, often disregarded; and potential contaminant loss attributable to adsorption processes (e.g., wall adsorption) in bioassays is widely omitted, which can have detrimental effects on calculated metal toxicity thresholds. In the present we assessed copper (Cu) mass balance during a standard 48-h bioassay test with blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) embryos to evaluate effects on calculated toxicity endpoints. We demonstrated that measured Cu concentrations at the test conclusion need to be used to quantify the risk of Cu toxicity because nominal Cu and initial Cu concentrations underestimate overall Cu toxicity by up to 1.5-fold, owing to Cu loss in solution attributable to adsorption and bioaccumulation processes. For the first time we provide evidence that extracellular adsorption to the biological surface of the embryos is the most important sink for total dissolved Cu in a bioassay. We also established that adsorbed extracellular Cu accumulation reduces Cu toxicity to embryos, potentially by inhibiting Cu from entering the cell of the mussel embryo. Environmental factors (e.g., salinity and dissolved organic carbon) did not influence the partitioning of Cu within the laboratory-based bioassay. The present results 1) demonstrate the importance of differentiating extra- and intracellular Cu pools to improve our understanding of Cu toxicity and associated processes, 2) reveal the potential for bias with respect to calculated Cu toxicity thresholds when results are based on nominal and initial Cu concentrations, and 3) point out the need to follow current guidelines for the testing of chemicals to standardize toxicity tests and data reporting. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:561-574. © 2019 SETAC.

Publisher Correction: Marine microbial metagenomes sampled across space and time.

Due to a typesetting error, 25 rows were omitted from Table 3 in the original version of this Data Descriptor. These missing rows correspond to the following sample names.

Marine microbial metagenomes sampled across space and time.

Recent advances in understanding the ecology of marine systems have been greatly facilitated by the growing availability of metagenomic data, which provide information on the identity, diversity and functional potential of the microbial community in a particular place and time. Here we present a dataset comprising over 5 terabases of metagenomic data from 610 samples spanning diverse regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. One set of metagenomes, collected on GEOTRACES cruises, captures large geographic transects at multiple depths per station. The second set represents two years of time-series data, collected at roughly monthly intervals from 3 depths at two long-term ocean sampling sites, Station ALOHA and BATS. These metagenomes contain genomic information from a diverse range of bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes and viruses. The data's utility is strengthened by the availability of extensive physical, chemical, and biological measurements associated with each sample. We expect that these metagenomes will facilitate a wide range of comparative studies that seek to illuminate new aspects of marine microbial ecosystems.

Single cell genomes of Prochlorococcus, Synechococcus, and sympatric microbes from diverse marine environments.

Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus are the dominant primary producers in marine ecosystems and perform a significant fraction of ocean carbon fixation. These cyanobacteria interact with a diverse microbial community that coexists with them. Comparative genomics of cultivated isolates has helped address questions regarding patterns of evolution and diversity among microbes, but the fraction that can be cultivated is miniscule compared to the diversity in the wild. To further probe the diversity of these groups and extend the utility of reference sequence databases, we report a data set of single cell genomes for 489 Prochlorococcus, 50 Synechococcus, 9 extracellular virus particles, and 190 additional microorganisms from a diverse range of bacterial, archaeal, and viral groups. Many of these uncultivated single cell genomes are derived from samples obtained on GEOTRACES cruises and at well-studied oceanographic stations, each with extensive suites of physical, chemical, and biological measurements. The genomic data reported here greatly increases the number of available Prochlorococcus genomes and will facilitate studies on evolutionary biology, microbial ecology, and biological oceanography.

A database of chlorophyll a in Australian waters.

Chlorophyll a is the most commonly used indicator of phytoplankton biomass in the marine environment. It is relatively simple and cost effective to measure when compared to phytoplankton abundance and is thus routinely included in many surveys. Here we collate 173, 333 records of chlorophyll a collected since 1965 from Australian waters gathered from researchers on regular coastal monitoring surveys and ocean voyages into a single repository. This dataset includes the chlorophyll a values as measured from samples analysed using spectrophotometry, fluorometry and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The Australian Chlorophyll a database is freely available through the Australian Ocean Data Network portal (https://portal.aodn.org.au/). These data can be used in isolation as an index of phytoplankton biomass or in combination with other data to provide insight into water quality, ecosystem state, and relationships with other trophic levels such as zooplankton or fish.

Application of the biotic ligand model to explain potassium interaction with thallium uptake and toxicity to plankton.

Competitive interaction between TI(I) and K was successfully predicted by the biotic ligand model (BLM) for the microalga Chlorella sp. (Chlorophyta; University of Toronto Culture Collection strain 522) during 96-h toxicity tests. Because of a greater affinity of T1(I) (log K = 7.3-7.4) as compared to K (log K = 5.3-6.3) for biologically sensitive sites, an excess of 40- to 160-fold of K is required to suppress T1(I) toxic effects on Chlorella sp., regardless of [T1(I)] in solution. Similar excess of K is required to suppress T1(I) toxicity to Synechococcus leopoliensis (Cyanobacteria; University of Texas Culture Collection strain 625) and Brachionus calyciflorus (Rotifera; strain AB-RIF). The mechanism for the mitigating effect of K on T1(I) toxicity was investigated by measuring 204T1(I) cellular uptake flux and efflux in Chlorella sp. Potassium shows a competitive effect on T1(I) uptake fluxes that could be modeled using the BLM-derived stability constants and a Michaelis-Menten relationship. A strong T1 efflux dependent only on the cellular T1 concentration was measured. Although T1 efflux does not explain the effect of K on T1(I) toxicity and uptake, it is responsible for a high turnover of the cellular T1 pool (intracellular half-life = 12-13.5 min). No effect of Na+, Mg2+, or Ca2+ was observed on T1+ uptake, whereas the absence of trace metals (Cu, Co, Mo, Mn, Fe, and Zn) significantly increased T1 uptake and decreased the mitigating effect of K+. The importance of K+ in determining the aquatic toxicity of T1+ underscores the use of ambient K+ concentration in the establishment of T1 water-quality guidelines and the need to consider K in predicting biogeochemical fates of T1 in the aquatic environment.

Assessing the Dynamics of Organic Aerosols over the North Atlantic Ocean.

The influence of aerosols on climate is highly dependent on the particle size distribution, concentration, and composition. In particular, the latter influences their ability to act as cloud condensation nuclei, whereby they impact cloud coverage and precipitation. Here, we simultaneously measured the concentration of aerosols from sea spray over the North Atlantic on board the exhaust-free solar-powered vessel "PlanetSolar", and the sea surface physico-chemical parameters. We identified organic-bearing particles based on individual particle fluorescence spectra. Organic-bearing aerosols display specific spatio-temporal distributions as compared to total aerosols. We propose an empirical parameterization of the organic-bearing particle concentration, with a dependence on water salinity and sea-surface temperature only. We also show that a very rich mixture of organic aerosols is emitted from the sea surface. Such data will certainly contribute to providing further insight into the influence of aerosols on cloud formation, and be used as input for the improved modeling of aerosols and their role in global climate processes.