A genome-wide genetic screen identifies CYRI-B as a negative regulator of CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis.

Opsonin-independent phagocytosis mediated by human carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 3 (CEACAM3) has evolved to control a subset of human-restricted bacterial pathogens. CEACAM3 engagement triggers rapid GTP-loading of the small GTPase Rac as a master regulator of cytoskeletal rearrangements and lamellipodia-driven internalization. To identify components of the CEACAM3-initiated signaling cascade, we performed a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9-based screen in human myeloid cells. Following infection with fluorescently labeled bacteria, cells exhibiting elevated phagocytosis (gain-of-function) as well as cells showing reduced phagocytosis (loss-of-function) were sorted and enrichment of individual single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) was determined by next generation sequencing. Concentrating on genes whose targeting by three distinct sgRNAs consistently resulted in a gain-of-function phenotype, we identified the Rac-GTP-sequestering protein CYRI-B as a negative regulator of CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis. Clonal HL-60 cell lines with CYRI-B knockout showed enhanced CEACAM3-downstream signaling, such as Rac GTP loading and phosphorylation of PAK kinases, leading to increased phagocytosis of bacteria. Complementation of the CYRI-B knockout cells reverted the knockout phenotype. Our results unravel components of CEACAM3-initiated opsonin-independent phagocytosis on a genome-wide level and highlight CYRI-B as a negative regulator of CEACAM3-initiated signaling in myeloid cells.

Inflammation-Induced CCR7 Oligomers Form Scaffolds to Integrate Distinct Signaling Pathways for Efficient Cell Migration.

Host defense depends on orchestrated cell migration guided by chemokines that elicit selective but biased signaling pathways to control chemotaxis. Here, we showed that different inflammatory stimuli provoked oligomerization of the chemokine receptor CCR7, enabling human dendritic cells and T cell subpopulations to process guidance cues not only through classical G protein-dependent signaling but also by integrating an oligomer-dependent Src kinase signaling pathway. Efficient CCR7-driven migration depends on a hydrophobic oligomerization interface near the conserved NPXXY motif of G protein-coupled receptors as shown by mutagenesis screen and a CCR7-SNP demonstrating super-oligomer characteristics leading to enhanced Src activity and superior chemotaxis. Furthermore, Src phosphorylates oligomeric CCR7, thereby creating a docking site for SH2-domain-bearing signaling molecules. Finally, we identified CCL21-biased signaling that involved the phosphatase SHP2 to control efficient cell migration. Collectively, our data showed that CCR7 oligomers serve as molecular hubs regulating distinct signaling pathways.

Phagocytosis mediated by the human granulocyte receptor CEACAM3 is limited by the receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPRJ.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 3 (CEACAM3) is a human granulocyte receptor mediating the efficient phagocytosis of a subset of human-restricted bacterial pathogens. Its function depends on phosphorylation of a tyrosine-based sequence motif, but the enzyme(s) responsible for reversing this modification are unclear. Here, we identify the receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPRJ as a negative regulator of CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis. We show depletion of PTPRJ results in a gain-of-function phenotype, while overexpression of a constitutively active PTPRJ phosphatase strongly reduces bacterial uptake via CEACAM3. We also determined that recombinant PTPRJ directly dephosphorylates the cytoplasmic tyrosine residues of purified full-length CEACAM3 and recognizes synthetic CEACAM3-derived phosphopeptides as substrates. Dephosphorylation of CEACAM3 by PTPRJ is also observed in intact cells, thereby limiting receptor-initiated cytoskeletal re-arrangements, lamellipodia formation, and bacterial uptake. Finally, we show that human phagocytes deficient for PTPRJ exhibit exaggerated lamellipodia formation and enhanced opsonin-independent phagocytosis of CEACAM3-binding bacteria. Taken together, our results highlight PTPRJ as a bona fide negative regulator of CEACAM3-initiated phagocyte functions, revealing a potential molecular target to limit CEACAM3-driven inflammatory responses.

G × E interactions as a basis for toxicological uncertainty.

To transfer toxicological findings from model systems, e.g. animals, to humans, standardized safety factors are applied to account for intra-species and inter-species variabilities. An alternative approach would be to measure and model the actual compound-specific uncertainties. This biological concept assumes that all observed toxicities depend not only on the exposure situation (environment = E), but also on the genetic (G) background of the model (G × E). As a quantitative discipline, toxicology needs to move beyond merely qualitative G × E concepts. Research programs are required that determine the major biological variabilities affecting toxicity and categorize their relative weights and contributions. In a complementary approach, detailed case studies need to explore the role of genetic backgrounds in the adverse effects of defined chemicals. In addition, current understanding of the selection and propagation of adverse outcome pathways (AOP) in different biological environments is very limited. To improve understanding, a particular focus is required on modulatory and counter-regulatory steps. For quantitative approaches to address uncertainties, the concept of "genetic" influence needs a more precise definition. What is usually meant by this term in the context of G × E are the protein functions encoded by the genes. Besides the gene sequence, the regulation of the gene expression and function should also be accounted for. The widened concept of past and present "gene expression" influences is summarized here as Ge. Also, the concept of "environment" needs some re-consideration in situations where exposure timing (Et) is pivotal: prolonged or repeated exposure to the insult (chemical, physical, life style) affects Ge. This implies that it changes the model system. The interaction of Ge with Et might be denoted as Ge × Et. We provide here general explanations and specific examples for this concept and show how it could be applied in the context of New Approach Methodologies (NAM).

PIP5KIγ90-generated phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate promotes the uptake of Staphylococcus aureus by host cells.

Staphylococcus aureus, a Gram-positive pathogen, invades cells mainly in an integrin-dependent manner. As the activity or conformation of several integrin-associated proteins can be regulated by phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI-4,5-P2 ), we investigated the roles of PI-4,5-P2 and PI-4,5-P2 -producing enzymes in cellular invasion by S. aureus. PI-4,5-P2 accumulated upon contact of S. aureus with the host cell, and targeting of an active PI-4,5-P2 phosphatase to the plasma membrane reduced bacterial invasion. Knockdown of individual phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinases revealed that phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase γ (PIP5KIγ) plays an important role in bacterial internalization. Specific ablation of the talin and FAK-binding motif in PIP5KIγ90 reduced bacterial invasion, which could be rescued by reexpression of an active, but not inactive PIP5KIγ90. Furthermore, PIP5KIγ90-deficient cells showed normal basal PI-4,5-P2 levels in the plasma membrane but reduced the accumulation of PI-4,5-P2 and talin at sites of S. aureus attachment and overall lower levels of FAK phosphorylation. These results highlight the importance of local synthesis of PI-4,5-P2 by a focal adhesion-associated lipid kinase for integrin-mediated internalization of S. aureus.

Microscale communication between bacterial pathogens and the host epithelium.

Pathogenic bacteria have evolved a variety of highly selective adhesins allowing these microbes to engage specific surface determinants of their eukaryotic host cells. Receptor clustering induced by the multivalent microorganisms will not only anchor the bacteria to the tissue, but will inevitably trigger host cell signaling. It has become clear, that these bacteria-initiated signaling events can be seen as a form of localized communication with host epithelial cells. Such a microscale communication can have immediate consequences in the form of changes in host cell membrane morphology or cytoskeletal organization, but can also lead to transcriptional responses and medium- and long-term alterations in cellular physiology. In this review, we will discuss several examples of this form of microscale communication between bacterial pathogens and mammalian host cells and try to delineate their downstream ramifications in the infection process. Furthermore, we will highlight recent findings that specialized pathogenic bacteria utilize the adhesin-based interaction to diffuse the short-range messenger molecule nitric oxide into the host tissue. While anti-adhesive strategies to disrupt the initial bacterial attachment have not yet translated into medical applications, the ability to interfere with the microscale communication emanating on the host side provides an unconventional approach for preventing infectious diseases.

Protein phosphatases in TLR signaling.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are critical sensors for the detection of potentially harmful microbes. They are instrumental in initiating innate and adaptive immune responses against pathogenic organisms. However, exaggerated activation of TLR receptor signaling can also be responsible for the onset of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. While positive regulators of TLR signaling, such as protein serine/threonine kinases, have been studied intensively, only little is known about phosphatases, which counterbalance and limit TLR signaling. In this review, we summarize protein phosphorylation events and their roles in the TLR pathway and highlight the involvement of protein phosphatases as negative regulators at specific steps along the TLR-initiated signaling cascade. Then, we focus on individual phosphatase families, specify the function of individual enzymes in TLR signaling in more detail and give perspectives for future research. A better understanding of phosphatase-mediated regulation of TLR signaling could provide novel access points to mitigate excessive immune activation and to modulate innate immune signaling. Video Abstract.

Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein-1 Regulates Tumor Necrosis Factor-Mediated Destruction of Intestinal Epithelial Cells.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a cytokine that promotes inflammation and contributes to pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases. Unlike other cells and tissues, intestinal epithelial cells undergo rapid cell death upon exposure to TNF, by unclear mechanisms. We investigated the roles of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) in the regulation of TNF-induced cell death in the intestinal epithelium of mice and intestinal organoids. METHODS: RNA from cell lines and tissues was analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, protein levels were analyzed by immunoblot assays. BIRC2 (also called cIAP1) was expressed upon induction from lentiviral vectors in young adult mouse colon (YAMC) cells. YAMC cells, the mouse colon carcinoma cell line MC38, the mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7, or mouse and human organoids were incubated with second mitochondrial activator of caspases (Smac)-mimetic compound LCL161 or recombinant TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TNFSF12) along with TNF, and cell death was quantified. C57BL/6 mice with disruption of Xiap, Birc2 (encodes cIAP1), Birc3 (encodes cIAP2), Tnfrsf1a, or Tnfrsf1b (Tnfrsf1a and b encode TNF receptors) were injected with TNF or saline (control); liver and intestinal tissues were collected and analyzed for apoptosis induction by cleaved caspase 3 immunohistochemistry. We also measured levels of TNF and alanine aminotransferase in serum from mice. RESULTS: YAMC cells, and mouse and human intestinal organoids, died rapidly in response to TNF. YAMC and intestinal crypts expressed lower levels of XIAP, cIAP1, cIAP2, and cFLIP than liver tissue. Smac-mimetics reduced levels of cIAP1 and XIAP in MC38 and YAMC cells, and Smac-mimetics and TNF-related weak inducer of apoptosis increased TNF-induced cell death in YAMC cells and organoids-most likely by sequestering and degrading cIAP1. Injection of TNF greatly increased levels of cell death in intestinal tissue of cIAP1-null mice, compared with wild-type C57BL/6 mice, cIAP2-null mice, or XIAP-null mice. Excessive TNF-induced cell death in the intestinal epithelium was mediated TNF receptor 1. CONCLUSIONS: In a study of mouse and human cell lines, organoids, and tissues, we found cIAP1 to be required for regulation of TNF-induced intestinal epithelial cell death and survival. These findings have important implications for the pathogenesis of TNF-mediated enteropathies and chronic inflammatory diseases of the intestine.

Uropathogenic E. coli Exploit CEA to Promote Colonization of the Urogenital Tract Mucosa.

Attachment to the host mucosa is a key step in bacterial pathogenesis. On the apical surface of epithelial cells, members of the human carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) family are abundant glycoproteins involved in cell-cell adhesion and modulation of cell signaling. Interestingly, several gram-negative bacterial pathogens target these receptors by specialized adhesins. The prototype of a CEACAM-binding pathogen, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, utilizes colony opacity associated (Opa) proteins to engage CEA, as well as the CEA-related cell adhesion molecules CEACAM1 and CEACAM6 on human epithelial cells. By heterologous expression of neisserial Opa proteins in non-pathogenic E. coli we find that the Opa protein-CEA interaction is sufficient to alter gene expression, to increase integrin activity and to promote matrix adhesion of infected cervical carcinoma cells and immortalized vaginal epithelial cells in vitro. These CEA-triggered events translate in suppression of exfoliation and improved colonization of the urogenital tract by Opa protein-expressing E. coli in CEA-transgenic compared to wildtype mice. Interestingly, uropathogenic E. coli expressing an unrelated CEACAM-binding protein of the Afa/Dr adhesin family recapitulate the in vitro and in vivo phenotype. In contrast, an isogenic strain lacking the CEACAM-binding adhesin shows reduced colonization and does not suppress epithelial exfoliation. These results demonstrate that engagement of human CEACAMs by distinct bacterial adhesins is sufficient to blunt exfoliation and to promote host infection. Our findings provide novel insight into mucosal colonization by a common UPEC pathotype and help to explain why human CEACAMs are a preferred epithelial target structure for diverse gram-negative bacteria to establish a foothold on the human mucosa.

Different Enzymatic Processing of γ-Phosphoramidate and γ-Phosphoester-Modified ATP Analogues.

Monitoring the activity of ATP-consuming enzymes provides the basis for elucidating their modes of action and regulation. Although a number of ATP analogues have been developed for this, their scope is restricted because of the limited acceptance by respective enzymes. In order to clarify which kind of phosphate-modified ATP analogues are accepted by the α-ß-phosphoanhydride-cleaving ubiquitin-activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) and the ß-γ-phosphoanhydride-cleaving focal adhesion kinase (FAK), we tested phosphoramidate- and phosphoester-modified ATP analogues. UBA1 and FAK were able to convert phosphoramidate-modified ATP analogues, even with a bulky modification like biotin. In contrast, a phosphoester-modified analogue was poorly accepted. These results demonstrate that minor variations in the design of ATP analogues for monitoring ATP utilization have a significant impact on enzymatic acceptance.

Outer membrane protein P1 is the CEACAM-binding adhesin of Haemophilus influenzae.

Haemophilus influenzae is a Gram-negative pathogen colonizing the upper respiratory tract mucosa. H. influenzae is one of several human-restricted bacteria, which bind to carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) on the epithelium leading to bacterial uptake by the eukaryotic cells. Adhesion to CEACAMs is thought to be mediated by the H. influenzae outer membrane protein (OMP) P5. However, CEACAMs still bound to H. influenzae lacking OMP P5 expression, and soluble CEACAM receptor ectodomains failed to bind to OMP P5, when heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. Screening of a panel of H. influenzae OMP mutants revealed that lack of OMP P1 completely abrogated CEACAM binding and supressed CEACAM-mediated engulfment of H. influenzae by epithelial cells. Moreover, ectopic expression of OMP P1 in E. coli was sufficient to induce CEACAM binding and to promote attachment to and internalization into CEACAM-expressing cells. Interestingly, OMP P1 selectively recognizes human CEACAMs, but not homologs from other mammals and this binding preference is preserved upon expression in E. coli. Together, our data identify OMP P1 as the bona fide CEACAM-binding invasin of H. influenzae. This is the first report providing evidence for an involvement of the major OMP P1 of H. influenzae in pathogenesis.

Synthetic Glycosphingolipids for Live-Cell Labeling.

Glycosphingolipids are an important component of cell membranes that are involved in many biological processes. Fluorescently labeled glycosphingolipids are frequently used to gain insight into their localization. However, the attachment of a fluorophore to the glycan part or-more commonly-to the lipid part of glycosphingolipids is known to alter the biophysical properties and can perturb the biological function of the probe. Presented here is the synthesis of novel glycosphingolipid probes with mono- and disaccharide head groups and ceramide moieties containing fatty acids of varying chain length (C4 to C20). These glycosphingolipids bear an azide or an alkyne group as chemical reporter to which a fluorophore can be attached through a bioorthogonal ligation reaction. The fluorescent tag and any linker connected to it can be chosen in a flexible manner. We demonstrate the suitability of the probes by selective visualization of the plasma membrane of living cells by confocal microscopy techniques. Whereas the derivatives with the shorter fatty acids can be directly applied to HEK 293T cells, the hydrophobic glycosphingolipids with longer fatty acids can be delivered to cells using fusogenic liposomes.

Visualization of Protein-Specific Glycosylation inside Living Cells.

Protein glycosylation is a ubiquitous post-translational modification that is involved in the regulation of many aspects of protein function. In order to uncover the biological roles of this modification, imaging the glycosylation state of specific proteins within living cells would be of fundamental importance. To date, however, this has not been achieved. Herein, we demonstrate protein-specific detection of the glycosylation of the intracellular proteins OGT, Foxo1, p53, and Akt1 in living cells. Our generally applicable approach relies on Diels-Alder chemistry to fluorescently label intracellular carbohydrates through metabolic engineering. The target proteins are tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the EGFP and the glycan-anchored fluorophore is detected with high contrast even in presence of a large excess of acceptor fluorophores by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM).

Signaling by epithelial members of the CEACAM family - mucosal docking sites for pathogenic bacteria.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) comprise a group of immunoglobulin-related vertebrate glycoproteins. Several family members, including CEACAM1, CEA, and CEACAM6, are found on epithelial tissues throughout the human body. As they modulate diverse cellular functions, their signaling capacity is in the focus of current research. In this review we will summarize the knowledge about common signaling processes initiated by epithelial CEACAMs and suggest a model of signal transduction by CEACAM family members lacking significant cytoplasmic domains. As pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria exploit these receptors during mucosal colonization, we try to highlight the connection between CEACAMs, microbes, and cellular responses. Special emphasis in this context is placed on the functional interplay between CEACAMs and integrins that influences matrix adhesion of epithelial cells. The cooperation between these two receptor families provides an intriguing example of the fine tuning of cellular responses and their manipulation by specialized microorganisms.

The phosphatidylinositol-5' phosphatase synaptojanin1 limits integrin-mediated invasion of Staphylococcus aureus.

The gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus can invade non-professional phagocytic cells by associating with the plasma protein fibronectin to exploit host cell integrins. Integrin-mediated internalization of these pathogens is facilitated by the local production of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI-4,5-P2) via an integrin-associated isoform of phosphatidylinositol-5' kinase. In this study, we addressed the role of PI-4,5-P2-directed phosphatases on internalization of S. aureus. ShRNA-mediated knockdown of individual phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases revealed that synaptojanin1 (SYNJ1) is counteracting invasion of S. aureus into mammalian cells. Indeed, shRNA-mediated depletion as well as genetic deletion of synaptojanin1 via CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in a gain-of-function phenotype with regard to integrin-mediated uptake. Surprisingly, the surface level of integrins was slightly downregulated in Synj1-KO cells. Nevertheless, these cells showed enhanced local accumulation of PI-4,5-P2 and exhibited increased internalization of S. aureus. While the phosphorylation level of the integrin-associated protein tyrosine kinase FAK was unaltered, the integrin-binding and -activating protein talin was enriched in the vicinity of S. aureus in synaptojanin1 knockout cells. Scanning electron microscopy revealed enlarged membrane invaginations in the absence of synaptojanin1 explaining the increased capability of these cells to internalize integrin-bound microorganisms. Importantly, the enhanced uptake by Synj1-KO cells and the exaggerated morphological features were rescued by the re-expression of the wild-type enzyme but not phosphatase inactive mutants. Accordingly, synaptojanin1 activity limits integrin-mediated invasion of S. aureus, corroborating the important role of PI-4,5-P2 during this process.IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus, an important bacterial pathogen, can invade non-professional phagocytes by capturing host fibronectin and engaging integrin α5ß1. Understanding how S. aureus exploits this cell adhesion receptor for efficient cell entry can also shed light on the physiological regulation of integrins by endocytosis. Previous studies have found that a specific membrane lipid, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), supports the internalization process. Here, we extend these findings and report that the local levels of PIP2 are controlled by the activity of the PIP2-directed lipid phosphatase Synaptojanin1. By dephosphorylating PIP2 at bacteria-host cell attachment sites, Synaptojanin1 counteracts the integrin-mediated uptake of the microorganisms. Therefore, our study not only generates new insight into subversion of cellular receptors by pathogenic bacteria but also highlights the role of host cell proteins acting as restriction factors for bacterial invasion at the plasma membrane.

Controling the cytoskeleton during CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis, an innate defense mechanism of multicellular animals, is initiated by specialized surface receptors. A phagocytic receptor expressed by human polymorphonuclear granulocytes, the major professional phagocytes in our body, is one of the fastest evolving human proteins implying a special role in human biology. This receptor, CEACAM3, is a member of the CarcinoEmbryonic Antigen-related Cell Adhesion Molecule (CEACAM) family and dedicated to the immediate recognition and rapid internalization of human-restricted pathogens. In this focused contribution, we will review the special adaptations of this protein, which co-evolves with different species of mucosa-colonizing bacteria. While the extracellular Immunoglobulin-variable (IgV)-like domain recognizes various bacterial adhesins, an Immunoreceptor Tyrosine-based Activation Motif (ITAM)-like sequence in the cytoplasmic tail of CEACAM3 constitutes the central signaling hub to trigger actin rearrangements needed for efficient phagocytosis. A major emphasis of this review will be placed on recent findings, which have revealed the multi-level control of this powerful phagocytic device. As tyrosine phosphorylation and small GTPase activity are central for CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis, the counterregulation of CEACAM3 activity involves the receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase J (PTPRJ) as well as the Rac-GTP scavenging protein Cyri-B. Interference with such negative regulatory circuits has revealed that CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis can be strongly enhanced. In principle, the knowledge gained by studying CEACAM3 can be applied to other phagocytic systems and opens the door to treatments, which boost the phagocytic capacity of professional phagocytes.

Grb14 is a negative regulator of CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis of pathogenic bacteria.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 3 (CEACAM3) is a phagocytic receptor on human granulocytes, which mediates the opsonin-independent recognition and internalization of a restricted set of Gram-negative bacteria such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae. In an unbiased screen using a SH2 domain microarray we identified the SH2 domain of growth factor receptor-bound protein 14 (Grb14) as a novel binding partner of CEACAM3. Biochemical assays and microscopic studies demonstrated that the Grb14 SH2 domain promoted the rapid recruitment of this adaptor protein to the immunoreceptor-based activation motif (ITAM)-like sequence within the cytoplasmic domain of CEACAM3. Furthermore, FRET-FLIM analyses confirmed the direct association of Grb14 and CEACAM3 in intact cells at the sites of bacteria-host cell contact. Knockdown of endogenous Grb14 by RNA interference as well as Grb14 overexpression indicate an inhibitory role for this adapter protein in CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis. Therefore, Grb14 is the first negative regulator of CEACAM3-initiated bacterial phagocytosis and might help to focus granulocyte responses to the subcellular sites of pathogen-host cell contact.

Innate recognition by neutrophil granulocytes differs between Neisseria gonorrhoeae strains causing local or disseminating infections.

Members of the carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (CEACAM) family serve as cellular receptors for Neisseria gonorrhoeae. More specifically, neisserial colony opacity (OpaCEA)) proteins bind to epithelial CEACAMs (CEACAM1, CEA, CEACAM6) to promote bacterial colonization of the mucosa. In contrast, recognition by CEACAM3, expressed by human granulocytes, results in uptake and destruction of Opa(CEA)-expressing bacteria. Therefore, CEACAM3-mediated uptake might limit the spread of gonococci. However, some strains can cause disseminating gonococcal infections (DGIs), and it is currently unknown how these strains escape detection by granulocyte CEACAM3. Therefore, the opa gene loci from N. gonorrhoeae strain VP1, which was derived from a patient with disseminated gonococcal disease, were cloned and constitutively expressed in Escherichia coli. Similar to Opa proteins of the nondisseminating strain MS11, the majority of Opa proteins from strain VP1 bound epithelial CEACAMs and promoted CEACAM-initiated responses by epithelial cells. In sharp contrast to the Opa proteins of strain MS11, the Opa proteins of strain VP1 failed to interact with the human granulocyte receptor CEACAM3. Accordingly, bacteria expressing VP1 Opa proteins were not taken up by primary human granulocytes and did not trigger a strong oxidative burst. Analysis of Opa variants from four additional clinical DGI isolates again demonstrated a lack of CEACAM3 binding. In summary, our results reveal that particular N. gonorrhoeae strains express an Opa protein repertoire allowing engagement of epithelial CEACAMs for successful mucosal colonization, while avoiding recognition and elimination via CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis. A failure of CEACAM3-mediated innate immune detection might be linked to the ability of gonococci to cause disseminated infections.

Integrin-mediated internalization of Staphylococcus aureus does not require vinculin.

BACKGROUND: Disease manifestations of Staphylococcus aureus are connected to the fibronectin (Fn)-binding capacity of these Gram-positive pathogens. Fn deposition on the surface of S. aureus allows engagement of α5ß1 integrins and triggers uptake by host cells. For several integrin- and actin-associated cytoplasmic proteins, including FAK, Src, N-WASP, tensin and cortactin, a functional role during bacterial invasion has been demonstrated. As reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton is critical for bacterial entry, we investigated whether vinculin, an essential protein linking integrins with the actin cytoskeleton, may contribute to the integrin-mediated internalization of S. aureus. RESULTS: Complementation of vinculin in vinculin -/- cells, vinculin overexpression, as well as shRNA-mediated vinculin knock-down in different eukaryotic cell types demonstrate, that vinculin does not have a functional role during the integrin-mediated uptake of S. aureus. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that vinculin is insignificant for the integrin-mediated uptake of S. aureus despite the critical role of vinculin as a linker between integrins and F-actin.

CEACAMs: their role in physiology and pathophysiology.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) belong to a group of mammalian immunoglobulin-related glycoproteins. They are involved in cell-cell recognition and modulate cellular processes that range from the shaping of tissue architecture and neovascularization to the regulation of insulin homeostasis and T-cell proliferation. CEACAMs have also been identified as receptors for host-specific viruses and bacteria in mice and humans, respectively, making these proteins an interesting example of pathogen-host co-evolution. Forward and reverse genetics in the mouse now provide powerful novel models to elucidate the action of CEACAM family members in vivo.