Controversy on health-based guidance values for bisphenol A-the need of criteria for studies that serve as a basis for risk assessment.

Since 2006, the responsible regulatory bodies have proposed five health-based guidance values (HBGV) for bisphenol A (BPA) that differ by a factor of 250,000. This range of HBGVs covers a considerable part of the range from highly toxic to relatively non-toxic substances. As such heterogeneity of regulatory opinions is a challenge not only for scientific risk assessment but also for all stakeholders, the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) analyzed the reasons for the current discrepancy and used this example to suggest improvements for the process of HBGV recommendations. A key aspect for deriving a HBGV is the selection of appropriate studies that allow the identification of a point of departure (PoD) for risk assessment. In the case of BPA, the HBGV derived in the 2023 EFSA assessment was based on a study that reported an increase of Th17 cells in mice with a benchmark dose lower bound (BMDL40) of 0.53 µg/kg bw/day. However, this study does not comply with several criteria that are important for scientific risk assessment: (1) the selected end-point, Th17 cell frequency in the spleen of mice, is insufficiently understood with respect to health outcomes. (2) It is unclear, by which mechanism BPA may cause an increase in Th17 cell frequency. (3) It is unknown, if an increase of Th17 cell frequency in rodents is comparably observed in humans. (4) Toxicokinetics were not addressed. (5) Neither the raw data nor the experimental protocols are available. A further particularly important criterion (6) is independent data confirmation which is not available in the present case. Previous studies using other readouts did not observe immune-related adverse effects such as inflammation, even at doses orders of magnitude higher than in the Th17 cell-based study. The SKLM not only provides here key criteria for the use of such studies, but also suggests that the use of such a "checklist" requires a careful and comprehensive scientific judgement of each item. It is concluded that the Th17 cell-based study data do not represent an adequate basis for risk assessment of BPA.

Commentary of the SKLM to the EFSA opinion on risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in food.

Dietary exposure to N-nitrosamines has recently been assessed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to result in margins of exposure that are conceived to indicate concern with respect to human health risk. However, evidence from more than half a century of international research shows that N-nitroso compounds (NOC) can also be formed endogenously. In this commentary of the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG), the complex metabolic and physiological biokinetics network of nitrate, nitrite and reactive nitrogen species is discussed with emphasis on its influence on endogenous NOC formation. Pioneering approaches to monitor endogenous NOC have been based on steady-state levels of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in human blood and on DNA adduct levels in blood cells. Further NOC have not been considered yet to a comparable extent, although their generation from endogenous or exogenous precursors is to be expected. The evidence available to date indicates that endogenous NDMA exposure could exceed dietary exposure by about 2-3 orders of magnitude. These findings require consolidation by refined toxicokinetics and DNA adduct monitoring data to achieve a credible and comprehensive human health risk assessment.

Eurasian consumers' food safety beliefs and trust issues in the age of COVID-19: evidence from an online survey in 15 countries.

BACKGROUND: This investigation provides an important insight into Eurasian consumers' food safety beliefs and trust issues influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. An online survey was conducted in 15 European and Asian countries involving more than 4000 consumers. RESULTS: It has confirmed that different socioeconomic characteristics, cultural aspects and education levels shape food safety perceptions within Eurasian countries. The COVID-19 pandemic influenced their beliefs and trust in food safety, which is relatively low on average. However, it is significantly higher for European consumers (especially European Union ones) compared to their Asian counterparts. Both Asian and European respondents agreed that food fraud and climate changes represent a food safety issue. However, European consumers were less concerned regarding the food safety of genetically modified foods and meat and dairy analogs/hybrids. Asian consumers were, to a greater extent, worried about the risk of getting COVID-19 from food, restaurants, food retail establishments and home food deliveries. CONCLUSION: Eurasian consumers have put their greatest extent of trust, when food safety assurance is concerned, into food scientists and food producers holding a food safety certificate. Broadly, they are uncertain to what extent their federal governments and food inspectors are competent, able and efficient in ensuring food safety. Higher education of Eurasian consumers was followed by increased food safety confidence in all parts of the food chain. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Microbial decontamination assisted by ultrasound-based processing technologies in food and model systems: A review.

Ultrasound (US) technology is recognized as one of the emerging technologies that arise from the current trends for improving nutritional and organoleptic properties while providing food safety. However, when applying the US alone, higher power and longer treatment times than conventional thermal treatments are needed to achieve a comparable level of microbial inactivation. This results in risks, damaging food products' composition, structure, or sensory properties, and can lead to higher processing costs. Therefore, the US has often been investigated in combination with other approaches, like heating at mild temperatures and/or treatments at elevated pressure, use of antimicrobial substances, or other emerging technologies (e.g., high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, nonthermal plasma, or microwaves). A combination of US with different approaches has been reported to be less energy and time consuming. This manuscript aims to provide a broad review of the microbial inactivation efficacy of US technology in different food matrices and model systems. In particular, emphasis is given to the US in combination with the two most industrially viable physical processes, that is, heating at mild temperatures and/or treatments at elevated pressure, resulting in techniques known as thermosonication, manosonication, and manothermosonication. The available literature is reviewed, and critically discussed, and potential research gaps are identified. Additionally, discussions on the US's inactivation mechanisms and lethal effects are included. Finally, mathematical modeling approaches of microbial inactivation kinetics due to US-based processing technologies are also outlined. Overall, this review focuses only on the uses of the US and its combinations with other processes relevant to microbial food decontamination.

Meat substitutes: Resource demands and environmental footprints.

The modern food system is characterized with high environmental impact, which is in many cases associated with increased rates of animal production and overconsumption. The adoption of alternatives to meat proteins (insects, plants, mycoprotein, microalgae, cultured meat, etc.) might potentially influence the environmental impact and human health in a positive or negative way but could also trigger indirect impacts with higher consumption rates. Current review provides a condensed analysis on potential environmental impacts, resource consumption rates and unintended trade-offs associated with integration of alternative proteins in complex global food system in the form of meat substitutes. We focus on emissions of greenhouse gases, land use, non-renewable energy use and water footprint highlighted for both ingredients used for meat substitutes and ready products. The benefits and limitations of meat substitution are highlighted in relation to a weight and protein content. The analysis of the recent research literature allowed us to define issues, that require the attention of future studies.

Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens as a potential innovative and environmentally friendly tool for organic waste management: A mini-review.

The application of black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens based technology to process organic wastes presents a practical option for organic waste management by producing feed materials (protein, fat), biodiesel, chitin and biofertilizer. Therefore, BSF organic wastes recycling is a sustainable and cost-effective process that promotes resource recovery, and generates valuable products, thereby creating new economic opportunities for the industrial sector and entrepreneurs. Specifically, we discussed the significance of BSF larvae (BSFL) in the recycling of biowaste. Despite the fact that BSFL may consume a variety of wastes materials, whereas, certain lignocellulosic wastes, such as dairy manure, are deficient in nutrients, which might slow BSFL development. The nutritional value of larval feeding substrates may be improved by mixing in nutrient-rich substrates like chicken manure or soybean curd residue, for instance. Similarly, microbial fermentation may be used to digest lignocellulosic waste, releasing nutrients that are needed for the BSFL. In this mini-review, a thorough discussion has been conducted on the various waste biodegraded by the BSFL, their co-digestion and microbial fermentation of BSFL substrate, as well as the prospective applications and safety of the possible by-products that may be generated at the completion of the treatment process. Furthermore, this study examines the present gaps and challenges on the direction to the efficient application of BSF for waste management and the commercialization of its by-products.

Metabolic, proteomic and microbial changes postmortem and during beef aging.

The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current knowledge about proteomic and metabolic changes in beef, the microbiological alteration postmortem and during aging, and observe the influence on beef quality parameters, such as tenderness, taste and flavor. This review will also focus on the different aging types (wet- and dry-aging), the aging or postmortem time of beef and their effect on the proteome and metabolome of beef. The Ca2+ homeostasis and adenosine 5'-triphosphate breakdown are the main reactions in the pre-rigor phase. After rigor mortis, the enzymatic degradation of connective tissues and breakdown of energy metabolism dominate molecular changes in beef. Important metabolic processes leading to the formation of saccharides, nucleotides, organic acids (e.g. lactic acid), creatine and fatty acids are considered in this context as possible flavor precursors or formers of beef flavor and taste. Flavor precursors are substrates for lipid oxidation, Strecker degradation and Maillard reaction during cooking or roasting. The findings presented should serve as a basis for a better understanding of beef aging and its molecular effects and are intended to contribute to meeting the challenges of improving beef quality.

Salivary nitrate/nitrite and acetaldehyde in humans: potential combination effects in the upper gastrointestinal tract and possible consequences for the in vivo formation of N-nitroso compounds-a hypothesis.

Subsequent to the dietary uptake of nitrate/nitrite in combination with acetaldehyde/ethanol, combination effects resulting from the sustained endogenous exposure to nitrite and acetaldehyde may be expected. This may imply locoregional effects in the upper gastrointestinal tract as well as systemic effects, such as a potential influence on endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds (NOC). Salivary concentrations of the individual components nitrate and nitrite and acetaldehyde are known to rise after ingestion, absorption and systemic distribution, thereby reflecting their respective plasma kinetics and parallel secretion through the salivary glands as well as the microbial/enzymatic metabolism in the oral cavity. Salivary excretion may also occur with certain drug molecules and food constituents and their metabolites. Therefore, putative combination effects in the oral cavity and the upper digestive tract may occur, but this has remained largely unexplored up to now. In this Guest Editorial, published evidence on exposure levels and biokinetics of nitrate/nitrite/NOx, NOC and acetaldehyde in the organism is reviewed and knowledge gaps concerning combination effects are identified. Research is suggested to be initiated to study the related unresolved issues.

Contribution to the ongoing discussion on fluoride toxicity.

Since the addition of fluoride to drinking water in the 1940s, there have been frequent and sometimes heated discussions regarding its benefits and risks. In a recently published review, we addressed the question if current exposure levels in Europe represent a risk to human health. This review was discussed in an editorial asking why we did not calculate benchmark doses (BMD) of fluoride neurotoxicity for humans. Here, we address the question, why it is problematic to calculate BMDs based on the currently available data. Briefly, the conclusions of the available studies are not homogeneous, reporting negative as well as positive results; moreover, the positive studies lack control of confounding factors such as the influence of well-known neurotoxicants. We also discuss the limitations of several further epidemiological studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria of our review. Finally, it is important to not only focus on epidemiological studies. Rather, risk analysis should consider all available data, including epidemiological, animal, as well as in vitro studies. Despite remaining uncertainties, the totality of evidence does not support the notion that fluoride should be considered a human developmental neurotoxicant at current exposure levels in European countries.

Aspects of high hydrostatic pressure food processing: Perspectives on technology and food safety.

The last two decades saw a steady increase of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) used for treatment of foods. Although the science of biomaterials exposed to high pressure started more than a century ago, there still seem to be a number of unanswered questions regarding safety of foods processed using HHP. This review gives an overview on historical development and fundamental aspects of HHP, as well as on potential risks associated with HHP food applications based on available literature. Beside the combination of pressure and temperature, as major factors impacting inactivation of vegetative bacterial cells, bacterial endospores, viruses, and parasites, factors, such as food matrix, water content, presence of dissolved substances, and pH value, also have significant influence on their inactivation by pressure. As a result, pressure treatment of foods should be considered for specific food groups and in accordance with their specific chemical and physical properties. The pressure necessary for inactivation of viruses is in many instances slightly lower than that for vegetative bacterial cells; however, data for food relevant human virus types are missing due to the lack of methods for determining their infectivity. Parasites can be inactivated by comparatively lower pressure than vegetative bacterial cells. The degrees to which chemical reactions progress under pressure treatments are different to those of conventional thermal processes, for example, HHP leads to lower amounts of acrylamide and furan. Additionally, the formation of new unknown or unexpected substances has not yet been observed. To date, no safety-relevant chemical changes have been described for foods treated by HHP. Based on existing sensitization to non-HHP-treated food, the allergenic potential of HHP-treated food is more likely to be equivalent to untreated food. Initial findings on changes in packaging materials under HHP have not yet been adequately supported by scientific data.

Toxicity of fluoride: critical evaluation of evidence for human developmental neurotoxicity in epidemiological studies, animal experiments and in vitro analyses.

Recently, epidemiological studies have suggested that fluoride is a human developmental neurotoxicant that reduces measures of intelligence in children, placing it into the same category as toxic metals (lead, methylmercury, arsenic) and polychlorinated biphenyls. If true, this assessment would be highly relevant considering the widespread fluoridation of drinking water and the worldwide use of fluoride in oral hygiene products such as toothpaste. To gain a deeper understanding of these assertions, we reviewed the levels of human exposure, as well as results from animal experiments, particularly focusing on developmental toxicity, and the molecular mechanisms by which fluoride can cause adverse effects. Moreover, in vitro studies investigating fluoride in neuronal cells and precursor/stem cells were analyzed, and 23 epidemiological studies published since 2012 were considered. The results show that the margin of exposure (MoE) between no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) in animal studies and the current adequate intake (AI) of fluoride (50 µg/kg b.w./day) in humans ranges between 50 and 210, depending on the specific animal experiment used as reference. Even for unusually high fluoride exposure levels, an MoE of at least ten was obtained. Furthermore, concentrations of fluoride in human plasma are much lower than fluoride concentrations, causing effects in cell cultures. In contrast, 21 of 23 recent epidemiological studies report an association between high fluoride exposure and reduced intelligence. The discrepancy between experimental and epidemiological evidence may be reconciled with deficiencies inherent in most of these epidemiological studies on a putative association between fluoride and intelligence, especially with respect to adequate consideration of potential confounding factors, e.g., socioeconomic status, residence, breast feeding, low birth weight, maternal intelligence, and exposure to other neurotoxic chemicals. In conclusion, based on the totality of currently available scientific evidence, the present review does not support the presumption that fluoride should be assessed as a human developmental neurotoxicant at the current exposure levels in Europe.

High moisture extrusion of lupin protein: influence of extrusion parameters on extruder responses and product properties.

BACKGROUND: High moisture extrusion (HME) of lupin protein concentrate and isolate (50:50) mixture was performed by varying the extrusion parameters, such as barrel temperature (138-180 °C), water feed (40-68%) and screw speed (400-1800 rpm). The effect of extrusion parameters on extruder responses [die pressure, product temperature, torque and specific mechanical energy (SME)] and product properties [colour, cutting force, cooking yield, microstructure and in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD)] was evaluated. RESULTS: The multiple regression analysis of the results revealed that the water feed had a significant negative linear effect on the extruder responses considered, as well as on colour difference and cutting force of extrudates. Screw speed had a positive linear effect on product temperature, SME and cooking yield. Barrel temperature affected extruder responses and product properties to a lesser extent. Scanning electron microscopy showed that denser microstructure and higher number of fibre layers were created by increasing temperature and screw speed along with decreasing water feed. The results of IVPD of selected extrudates showed that the increase in barrel temperature decreased the IVPD, whereas the increase in water feed resulted in higher IVPD. The screw speed had no significant effect on IVPD. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrates that the use of lupin protein is feasible to produce meat analogues with HME which could enhance the possibilities to meet the growing protein demands for human consumption. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

In situ investigation of Geobacillus stearothermophilus spore germination and inactivation mechanisms under moderate high pressure.

Bacterial spores are a major concern for food safety due to their high resistance to conventional preservation hurdles. Innovative hurdles can trigger bacterial spore germination or inactivate them. In this work, Geobacillus stearothermophilus spore high pressure (HP) germination and inactivation mechanisms were investigated by in situ infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and fluorometry. G. stearothermophilus spores' inner membrane (IM) was stained with Laurdan fluorescent dye. Time-dependent FT-IR and fluorescence spectra were recorded in situ under pressure at different temperatures. The Laurdan spectrum is affected by the lipid packing and level of hydration, and provided information on the IM state through the Laurdan generalized polarization. Changes in the -CH2 and -CH3 asymmetric stretching bands, characteristic of lipids, and in the amide I' band region, characteristic of proteins' secondary structure elements, enabled evaluation of the impact of HP on endospores lipid and protein structures. These studies were complemented by ex situ analyses (plate counts and microscopy). The methods applied showed high potential to identify germination mechanisms, particularly associated to the IM. Germination up to 3 log10 was achieved at 200 MPa and 55 °C. A molecular-level understanding of these mechanisms is important for the development and validation of multi-hurdle approaches to achieve commercial sterility.

Effect of non-thermal hurdles in extending shelf life of cut apples.

Pulsed electric fields (PEF), high pressure processing (HPP) and conventional method of heating (90 °C, 60s) were evaluated as blanching methods for fresh cut apples. The settings employed for PEF and HPP were 1.5 kV/cm, 100 pulses, 4 Hz and 600 MPa for 2 min respectively. The blanched samples were soaked in sucrose solution (60°Brix, 60 min) containing ascorbic acid, citric acid, sodium benzoate, and potassium sorbate. The treated samples were packed and pasteurized using either hot water (90 °C, 15 min) or HPP (600 MPa, 10 min). These samples were analyzed for physicochemical and microbiological attributes immediately after treatment and after 2 months of cold storage. The combination of different hurdles in all groups completely inhibited microbial growth. However, in terms of color values and texture retention, the apple cuts treated with PEF followed by hot water pasteurization were of a better quality when compared to HPP pasteurized ones (P < 0.05).

Micro- and Macroalgae in Meat Products.

Technology in the meat industry is advancing to create healthier and more sustainable food. Incorporating micro- and macroalgae into meat products presents an exciting possibility for the meat sector to develop functional food, given that they serve as excellent natural sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds. This review aims to systematically outline the impact of incorporating whole algae and their extracts into various meat products, examining their effects on quality, physicochemical and functional properties, sensory characteristics, and potential for enhancing shelf life. Adding algae to meat products generally increased pH values, with variations influenced by concentration, type, initial pH, and storage time. The protein content was mainly unaffected, except for Nori and Chlorella. Algae contributed to lower moisture and higher ash content due to dietary fiber. While including algae improved water-holding capacity and decreased cooking loss, it often led to increased hardness and chewiness. Algae and their extracts influenced color attributes, with variations based on the algae type. Sensory properties were distinctively affected, generally reducing overall acceptability, although Sea tangle at concentrations of 1-3% showed acceptable scores. Chlorella and Sea tangle positively impacted microbiology during refrigerated storage, while algae and their extracts demonstrated strong antioxidant activity.

Manufacture of Low-Na White Soft Brined Cheese: Effect of NaCl Substitution with a Combination of Na-K Salts on Proximate Composition, Mineral Content, Microstructure, and Sensory Acceptance.

All over the world, especially in Western societies, table salt intake that is inordinately higher than the acceptable level has been observed. An excess of Na in the human diet, mostly from processed foods, is becoming the "number one killer", leading to increased blood pressure. Therefore, the food industry is faced with a need to reduce Na in human nutrition in an effort to raise public health protection to a higher level. In this study, a commercially available combination of Na/K salts (COMB) at different concentrations was used as a NaCl substitute in the production of a modified, healthier, Na-reduced cheese. Samples of the modified low-Na white soft-brined cheese (WSBC) were produced by adding four different concentrations of COMB to production lots PL-1 to PL-4, and the control (CON) samples were prepared by salting with the usual, non-reduced concentration of NaCl. The effects of NaCl replacement on the physical-chemical parameters, major- and micro-elements, and microstructural and sensory properties of the WSBC were investigated. The obtained results indicated that there was no significant influence on the ash content, pH, and aw. The Na and K levels differed among treatments (p < 0.001). The lowest Na level in this study was recorded in PL-4 (only COMB was added) and was 334.80 ± 24.60 mg/100 g. According to the Na content, WSBC PL4 can be labeled with the nutrient claim "reduced amount of Na". A significant difference (p < 0.05) was noticed in overall acceptance between the CON and PL-4, with no statistically significant difference found amongst other WSBC production lots. The replacement of NaCl resulted in a slightly greater firmness of the WSBC. The results confirm the possibility of producing low-Na WSBC when optimal amounts of a suitable mineral salt are used as a substitute for NaCl, thus reducing the risk of high Na intake in the human body through the consumption of evaluated cheese.

Computerized assessment of pedophilic sexual interest through self-report and viewing time: reliability, validity, and classification accuracy of the affinity program.

Affinity is a computerized assessment tool that combines viewing time and self-report measures of sexual interest. The present study was designed to assess the diagnostic properties of Affinity with respect to sexual interest in prepubescent children. Reliability of both self-report and viewing time components was estimated to be high. The group profile of a sample of pedophilic adult male child molesters (n = 42, all of whom admitted their offenses) differed from the group profiles of male community controls (n = 95) and male nonsexual offenders (n = 27), respectively. More specifically, both ratings and viewing times for images showing small children or prejuvenile children were significantly higher within the child molester sample than in either of the other two groups, attesting to the validity of the measures. Overall classification accuracy, however, was mediocre: A multivariate classification routine yielded 50% sensitivity for child molester status at the cost of 13% false positives. The implications for forensic use of Affinity are discussed.

Variations in the Metabolome of Unaged and Aged Beef from Black-and-White Cows and Heifers by 1H NMR Spectroscopy.

(1) Background: The selection of raw material and the postmortem processing of beef influence its quality, such as taste. In this study, the metabolome of beef from cows and heifers is examined for differences during aging. (2) Methods: Thirty strip loins from eight heifers and seven cows (breed code: 01-SBT) were cut into ten pieces and aged for 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Samples from the left strip loins were wet-aged in vacuum, while samples from right strip loins were dry-aged at 2 °C and 75% relative humidity. The beef samples were extracted with methanol-chloroform-water, and the polar fraction was used for 1H NMR analysis. (3) Results: The PCA and OPLS-DA showed that the metabolome of cows and heifers varied. Eight metabolites revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) in the samples from cows and heifers. The aging time and aging type of beef also affected the metabolome. Twenty-eight and 12 metabolites differed significantly (p < 0.05) with aging time and aging type, respectively. (4) Conclusions: The variations between cows and heifers and aging time affect the metabolome of beef. By comparison, the influence of aging type is present but less pronounced.

Bacteriobiota and Chemical Changes during the Ripening of Traditional Fermented "Pirot 'Ironed' Sausage".

"Pirot 'ironed' sausage" (Pis) is a traditional, fermented sausage, made from different types of meat (beef and chevon), without additives or starter cultures. The physical-chemical properties (pH, water activity, fats, moisture, and protein contents) were examined in the initial meat batter stuffing and during ripening. Total bacterial diversity was examined at different time points using both culturable (traditional) and non-culturable (NGS sequencing) approaches. During the ripening, a decrease in pH value, aw, and moisture content was observed, as well as an increase in protein and fat content. At least a two-fold significant decrease was noted for colorimetric values during the ripening period. The dominance of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes was observed in the non-culturable approach in all studied samples. During the ripening process, an increase in Firmicutes (from 33.5% to 63.5%) with a decrease in Proteobacteria (from 65.4% to 22.3%) was observed. The bacterial genera that were dominant throughout the ripening process were Lactobacillus, Photobacterium, Leuconostoc, Weissella, and Lactococcus, while Carnobacterium, Brochothrix, and Acinetobacter were found also, but in negligible abundance. Among the culturable bacteria, Latilactobacillus sakei (Lactobacillus sakei) and Leuconostoc mesenteoides were present in all stages of ripening.