Delaying Gratification's role in the relationship between facets of mindfulness and substance use outcomes.

The present study examined whether five facets of mindfulness (acting with awareness, describing, observing, non-judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience) relate to alcohol and cannabis outcomes (quantity of use and negative consequences) via delaying gratification. Participants were college students across seven universities who used alcohol (n = 1467) and/or cannabis (n = 647) in the last 30 days. For the alcohol analytic sample, the majority of students identified as being female (71.1%) and reported a mean age of 20.04 (Median = 19.00; SD = 3.47) years. For the cannabis analytic sample, the majority of students identified as being female (69.7%) and reported a mean age of 19.63 (Median = 19.00; SD = 2.85). Within our model, significant indirect effects were only found for two mindfulness facets. Specifically, the indirect effects from acting with awareness (alcohol indirect ß = -0.026, SE = 0.006; cannabis indirect ß = -0.019, SE = 0.008) and observing (alcohol indirect ß = -0.017, SE = 0.005; cannabis indirect ß = -0.015, SE = 0.007) to consequences via delaying gratification and quantity were significant for both the alcohol and cannabis models, such that acting with awareness and observing were associated with higher delaying gratification; which in turn was associated with lower quantity of use, which in turn was associated with fewer consequences for both the cannabis and alcohol models. Our findings suggest that delaying gratification is important to understanding the relationship between specific mindfulness facets (i.e., acting with awareness and observing) and alcohol and cannabis outcomes. Mindfulness interventions aimed at reducing substance use may benefit from targeting delaying gratification through increasing acting with awareness and observing.

Dopamine D4 receptor gene expression plays important role in extinction and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in mice.

Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) dysregulation is associated with a variety of behaviors including novelty-seeking, approach avoidance, and ADHD. DRD4 has also been shown to interact with the environment to produce changes in behavior and longevity. The present study sought to examine the role of DRD4 on cocaine-seeking behavior in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test and determine its effects on extinction and reinstatement in adult wild-type (WT), heterozygous (HT), and knockout (KO) mice. Results revealed that all mice, regardless of sex or genotype, developed a similar acquisition for a cocaine place preference. Female DRD4 KO mice failed to extinguish their preference for the cocaine-paired chamber following the extinction period. Male DRD4 KO mice failed to reinstate their preference after a priming dose following successful extinction. No differences in locomotor activity were observed within drug treatment conditions due to genotype, and female mice displayed reduced locomotor activity during CPP conditioning compared to male mice. The observed effects illustrate the role DRD4 gene expression has on extinction and reinstatement, but not acquisition, of cocaine-seeking behavior.

Examining cannabis protective behavioral strategy use using multiple methods.

PURPOSE ­: Cannabis use among young adults is increasing, despite being associated with several negative consequences. Protective behavioral strategies (PBSs) are a potential mechanism of behavior change for reducing substance use, yet PBS use for cannabis is not well understood. The purpose of this paper is to further define and measure the PBS construct for cannabis. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH ­: A community sample of cannabis users (n = 54) participated in eight focus groups discussing the use of PBSs. Participants completed surveys regarding demographics, cannabis use habits and cannabis problems. The authors also administered an existing measure of cannabis PBS and asked them to generate new or unique protective strategies that they had used or had heard of others using. FINDINGS ­: Thematic analysis of qualitative focus group data provided information about cannabis users' reasons for regulating cannabis use (e.g. health or legal problems, interpersonal) as well as strategies to moderate cannabis use or attenuate their risk for experiencing adverse consequences (e.g. distraction, existential/spiritual strategies). Analyses of quantitative survey data revealed that use of PBSs was negatively correlated with cannabis outcomes. Perceived helpfulness of strategies was an important predictor of decreased cannabis use and adverse consequences. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS ­: Findings expand the understanding of the definition and measurement of strategies for regulating cannabis use and reducing related risk of experiencing adverse consequences. ORIGINALITY/VALUE ­: This is the first study to examine cannabis-related PBS using both qualitative and quantitative methods, which provide insights into the definition of PBS and for future refinements of PBS measurement.

The Indirect Effects of Self-Efficacy on Cannabis Use via Cannabis Protective Strategies: A Preliminary Study.

Cannabis use has more than doubled in the past decade and nearly three of 10 users develop a cannabis use disorder. The increase in users, combined with the ongoing changes in the medical, legal and social status of cannabis, has contributed to interest in the antecedents of cannabis use. In the current preliminary study, we gathered information from a community sample (N = 54) of regular cannabis using young adults. Assessments included perceived self-efficacy for reducing intake or abstaining (SE-R/A), use of cannabis protective strategies (CPS), and average quantity of cannabis use per day. We systematically explored which specific CPS were most strongly associated with self-efficacy and cannabis use. Three clinically relevant subgroups of CPS emerged from this analysis: strategies strongly associated with only self-efficacy, only cannabis use, and both variables. We hypothesized that self-efficacy would be associated with less cannabis use via use of CPS. Among specific CPS examined, "Use a little and then wait to see how you feel before using more" had the strongest association with self-efficacy while "Avoid methods of using cannabis that can make you more intoxicated than you would like" had the strongest negative association with cannabis use. We observed a significant indirect relationship from self-efficacy to cannabis use through use of CPS. Our findings suggest that use of CPS is a potential mechanism by which cannabis users reduce use, and a more proximal antecedent of cannabis use than personal confidence in one's ability to stop using. These preliminary findings highlight the value of studying individual strategies. They also may have implications for promoting use of cannabis protective strategies when treating those with cannabis use problems.