National Institutes of Health Diversity Supplement Awards by Medical School.

BACKGROUND: Increasing medical school faculty diversity is an urgent priority. National Institutes of Health (NIH) diversity supplements, which provide funding and career development opportunities to individuals underrepresented in research, are an important mechanism to increase faculty diversity. OBJECTIVE: Analyze diversity supplement utilization by medical schools. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: All R01 grant-associated diversity supplements awarded to medical schools from 2005 to 2020. Diversity supplements were identified using the publicly available NIH RePORTER database. MAIN MEASURES: Main measures were the number of R01-associated diversity supplements awarded to medical schools each year by medical school NIH funding status and the number of R01-associated diversity supplements awarded to individual medical schools in the NIH top 40 by funding status. We also examined the percentage of R01 grants with an associated diversity supplement by NIH funding status and individual medical school in the NIH top 40. KEY RESULTS: From 2005 to 2020, US medical school faculty received 1389 R01-associated diversity supplements. The number of diversity supplements awarded grew from 2012 to 2020, from ten to 187 for top 40 schools, and from seven to 83 for non-top 40 schools. The annual growth rate for diversity supplement awards at NIH top 40 schools (44.2%) was not significantly different than the annual growth rate among non-top 40 schools (36.2%; p = 0.68). From 2005 to 2020, the highest number of diversity supplements that an individual medical school received was 56 and the lowest number was four (mean = 24.6, SD = 11.7). The highest percentage of R01 grants with an associated diversity supplement received by a school was 4.5% and the lowest percentage was 0.79% (mean = 2.3%, SD = 0.98). CONCLUSION: Medical schools may be missing an opportunity to address the continuing shortage of individuals historically underrepresented in biomedical science and should consider additional mechanisms to enhance diversity supplement utilization.

Implementing the Trauma Evaluation and Management (TEAM) Course in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Trauma training provides crucial knowledge and skills for health-care providers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Although such training has been adapted for physicians and emergency personnel in LMICs, few courses have been offered for medical students. The Trauma Evaluation and Management (TEAM) course, developed by the American College of Surgeons, provides a valuable framework for providing this content to medical students in an LMIC-context. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We implemented the TEAM course at a single medical school in rural Kenya, for final-year medical students, utilizing the multimodal instruction and reference materials provided by the American College of Surgeons. We administered precourse and postcourse assessments, adapted the content for particular low-resource considerations, expanded the course to 2 d, and utilized a multidisciplinary and multinational group of surgical expert instructors. RESULTS: The entire final-year medical school class participated, and all completed pretesting and posttesting (100%, n = 61). Posttesting revealed significant improvement (P < 0.001), demonstrating successful knowledge acquisition, with the greatest improvements among the poorest performing decile on the pretest (P < 0.05). On narrative course feedback (100% completion, n = 61), participants appreciated instructors' interactive teaching style and the course's practical demonstrations, while requesting more time allotment for trauma training. CONCLUSIONS: We describe the feasibility of implementing TEAM training for final-year medical students in Kenya and demonstrate the course's effectiveness in this context as shown by knowledge acquisition. We plan for additional study to assess interval knowledge and skill retention. With refinement based on these results, we plan to repeat and expand trauma-education initiatives for medical students in LMICs.

A qualitative study of gender differences in the experiences of general surgery trainees.

BACKGROUND: Women surgeons continue to face unique challenges to professional advancement. Higher attrition rates and lower confidence among female surgical residents suggest that experiences during residency differ by gender. Few studies have investigated gender-specific experiences during training. This study identifies gender-based differences in the experiences of general surgery residents that could affect professional development. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Male and female general surgery residents at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center participated in a semi-structured interview study exploring the significance of gender in training. Recurring themes were identified from transcribed interviews using inductive methods. Two individuals independently coded interviews. Themes were compared for male and female residents. Certain themes arose with greater frequency in reference to one gender over the other. RESULTS: Twenty-four male and eighteen female residents participated (87.5%) in the study. Fewer female residents self-identified as a "surgeon" (11.1% versus 37.5%, P < 0.001). Residents felt that patients and physicians more frequently disregarded female residents' professional role (P < 0.001). Female residents also more often mentioned perceiving aggressive behaviors from attendings and support staff (9% versus 1% and 10% versus 3%, respectively). Relative to men, women more often mentioned lack of mentorship (0% versus 8%), discomfort (4% versus 8%), feeling pressured to participate in unprofessional behaviors (2% versus 5%), and having difficulty completing tasks (5% versus 10%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Women experience gender-based challenges during surgical training. Further investigation is needed to determine how these experiences affect professional development.

Delays in Care by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Cross-Sectional Data From National Institutes of Health's All of Us Research Program.

PURPOSE: Delays in receiving medical care are an urgent problem. This study aims to determine whether the odds of, and reasons for, experiencing care delays differ by gender, race-ethnicity, and survey completion before versus during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of survey data from participants age ≥18 in the National Institutes of Health's All of Us Research Program collected from May 6, 2018, to January 1, 2022. Logistic regressions were performed to assess the association of gender, race-ethnicity, and survey completion date with any of nine reasons for delaying care in the past 12 months. RESULTS: Of 119,983 participants, 37.8% reported delaying care in the past 12 months. After adjusting for employment status, education, income, marital status, health insurance, and age, women of every race-ethnicity and Black and other race-ethnicity men were more likely than white men to report delays in care: Asian women (odds ratio [OR] 1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.13, 1.34]), Black men (OR 1.15; 95% CI [1.05, 1.25]) and women (OR 1.46; 95% CI [1.38, 1.54]), Hispanic women (OR 1.36; 95% CI [1.28, 1.44]), white women (OR 1.55; 95% CI [1.50, 1.60]), and other race-ethnicity men (OR 1.15; 95% CI [1.05, 1.27]) and women (OR 1.79; 95% CI [1.67, 1.91]). A small but statistically significant difference was seen in reports of care delays for non-pandemic-related reasons during versus before the COVID-19 pandemic (OR 0.88; 95% CI [0.83, 0.93]). CONCLUSIONS: In this study of diverse U.S. participants, women and Black and other race-ethnicity men were more likely than white men to report delays in care, both before and during COVID-19. Addressing care delays may be necessary to ameliorate health disparities by race-ethnicity and gender.

Myoclonic status epilepticus after severe hyperthermia in a patient with coronavirus disease 2019.

Myoclonic status epilepticus (MSE) is a sign of severe neurologic injury in cardiac arrest patients. To our knowledge, MSE has not been described as a result of prolonged hyperpyrexia. A 56-yearold man with coronavirus disease 2019 presented with acute respiratory distress syndrome, septic/hypovolemic shock, and presumed community-acquired pneumonia. Five days after presentation, he developed a sustained fever of 42.1°C that did not respond to acetaminophen or ice water gastric lavage. After several hours, he was placed on surface cooling. Three hours after fever resolution, new multifocal myoclonus was noted in the patient's arms and trunk. Electroencephalography showed midline spikes consistent with MSE, which resolved with 40 mg/kg of levetiracetam. This case demonstrates that severe hyperthermia can cause cortical injury significant enough to trigger MSE and should be treated emergently using the most aggressive measures available. Providers should have a low threshold for electroencephalography in intubated patients with a recent history of hyperpyrexia.

Burnout and Perception of Medical School Learning Environments Among Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Medical Students.

Importance: The perspectives of gay, lesbian, bisexual (sexual minority [SM]) students about their medical school learning environment and how they relate to burnout is poorly understood. Objective: To understand SM medical students' perceptions of the medical school learning environment and how this is associated with reported burnout. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included medical students graduating from Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC)-accredited allopathic US medical schools in 2016 and 2017 and responding to the AAMC Graduation Questionnaire. Data analysis was conducted from June 2021 to March 2022. Exposures: Sexual orientation, based on self-identification, and categorized as bisexual, gay or lesbian, or heterosexual or straight. Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcomes included burnout as measured by Oldenburg Burnout Inventory for Medical Students (OLBI-MS; two 24-point scales [range, 0-48], with higher scores indicating greater burnout) and student perceptions of the medical school learning environment (0-5-point scales for emotional climate [range, 0-20] and student-faculty interactions [range, 0-15], with higher scores indicating more positive perceptions). Logistic regression was used to model the association between burnout, SM status, and learning environment while controlling for demographic characteristics. Results: A total of 25 757 respondents (12 527 [48.6%] women; 5347 [20.8%] Asian; 2255 [8.8%] underrepresented in medicine; 15 651 [60.8%] White; 10 726 [41.6%] aged ≤26 years) were included in the analysis: 568 (2.2%) self-identified as bisexual, 854 (3.3%) as gay or lesbian, and 24 335 (94.5%) as heterosexual or straight. Both bisexual students and gay or lesbian students reported less favorable perceptions of their learning environments than heterosexual students (mean [SD] emotional climate score, bisexual students: 8.56 [3.29]; gay or lesbian students: 9.22 [3.33]; heterosexual or straight students: 9.71 [3.20]; P < .001; mean [SD] faculty-student interaction score, bisexual students: 13.46 [3.69]; gay or lesbian students: 14.07 [3.45]; heterosexual or straight students: 14.32 [3.37]; P < .001). Bisexual and gay or lesbian students were more likely to be in the top quartile for burnout scores (bisexual: odds ratio [OR], 1.71; 95% CI, 1.42-2.07; P < .001; gay or lesbian: OR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.31-1.79; P < .001). This association was attenuated when accounting for student perceptions of the learning environment (bisexual: OR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.11-1.67; P < .001; gay or lesbian: OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.19-1.68; P < .001), with poorer perceptions of the medical school learning environment associated with higher burnout symptoms. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study, SM students had less favorable perceptions of the medical school learning environment compared with heterosexual students. Results suggest the medical school environment may be associated with higher rates of burnout in SM students. Future research should explore interventions to improve the learning environment for SM students.

Marginalized identities, mistreatment, discrimination, and burnout among US medical students: cross sectional survey and retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the association between mistreatment, burnout, and having multiple marginalized identities during undergraduate medical education. DESIGN: Cross sectional survey and retrospective cohort study. SETTING: 140 US medical schools accredited by the Association of American Medical Colleges. PARTICIPANTS: 30 651 graduating medical students in 2016 and 2017. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported sex, race or ethnicity, and sexual orientation groups were considered, based on the unique combinations of historically marginalized identities held by students. Multivariable linear regression was used to determine the association between unique identity groups and burnout along two dimensions (exhaustion and disengagement) as measured by the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory for Medical Students while accounting for mistreatment and discrimination. RESULTS: Students with three marginalized identities (female; non-white; lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB)) had the largest proportion reporting recurrent experiences of multiple types of mistreatment (88/299, P<0.001) and discrimination (92/299, P<0.001). Students with a higher number of marginalized identities also had higher average scores for exhaustion. Female, non-white, and LGB students had the largest difference in average exhaustion score compared with male, white, and heterosexual students (adjusted mean difference 1.96, 95% confidence interval 1.47 to 2.44). Mistreatment and discrimination mediated exhaustion scores for all identity groups but did not fully explain the association between unique identity group and burnout. Non-white and LGB students had higher average disengagement scores than their white and heterosexual counterparts (0.28, 0.19 to 0.37; and 0.73, 0.52 to 0.94; respectively). Female students, in contrast, had lower average disengagement scores irrespective of the other identities they held. After adjusting for mistreatment and discrimination among female students, the effect among female students became larger, indicating a negative confounding association. CONCLUSION: In this study population of US medical students, those with multiple marginalized identities reported more mistreatment and discrimination during medical school, which appeared to be associated with burnout.

Association of Marginalized Identities With Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Society and Gold Humanism Honor Society Membership Among Medical Students.

Importance: Disparities in medical student membership in Alpha Omega Alpha (AOA) are well documented. Less is known about Gold Humanism Honor Society (GHHS) membership and it remains unknown how the intersection of different identities is associated with membership in these honor societies. Objective: To examine the association between honor society membership and medical student race and ethnicity, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersection of identities. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study analyzed data from Association of American Medical Colleges data collection instruments. The study included all students who graduated from Liaison Committee on Medical Education-accredited US medical schools from 2016 to 2019 and completed the Graduation Questionnaire. Data analysis was conducted from January 12 to July 12, 2022. Main Outcomes and Measures: Likelihood of AOA and GHHS membership by student race and ethnicity, sex, sexual orientation, childhood family income, and intersection of identities. Results: The sample of 50 384 individuals comprised 82 (0.2%) American Indian or Alaska Native, 10 601 (21.0%) Asian, 2464 (4.9%) Black, 3291 (6.5%) Hispanic, 25 (0.1%) Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 30 610 (60.8%) White, 2476 (4.9%) multiracial students, and 834 (1.7%) students of other races or ethnicities. Sex and sexual orientation included 25 672 (51.0%) men and 3078 (6.1%) lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB). Childhood family income comprised 31 758 (60.0%) individuals with $75 000 per year or greater, 8160 (16.2%) with $50 000 to $74 999 per year, 6864 (13.6%) with $25 000 to $49 999 per year, and 3612 (7.2%) with less than $25 000 per year. The sample included 7303 (14.5%) AOA members only, 4925 (9.8%) GHHS members only, and 2384 (4.7%) members of both societies. In AOA, American Indian or Alaska Native (OR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.25-0.96), Asian (OR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.45-0.53), Black (OR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.20-0.30), Hispanic (OR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.47-0.59), multiracial (OR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.62-0.77), and other race and ethnicity (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.60-0.88) were underrepresented compared with White students; LGB students (OR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.67-0.83) were underrepresented compared with heterosexual students; and childhood family income $50 000 to $74 999 (OR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.75-0.86), $25 000 to $49 999 (OR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.62-0.74), and less than $25 000 (OR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.53-0.69) were underrepresented compared with greater than or equal to $75 000. In GHHS, Asian students (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.73-0.87) were underrepresented compared with White students, female students (OR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.45-1.65) were overrepresented compared with male students, LGB students (OR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.23-1.51) were overrepresented compared with heterosexual students, and students with childhood family income $25 000 to $49 999 (OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.78-0.94) and less than $25 000 (OR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.66-0.86) were underrepresented compared with those with greater than or equal to $75 000. Likelihood of AOA, but not GHHS, membership decreased as number of marginalized identities increased. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of US medical students, membership disparities were noted in both AOA and GHHS. However, differences in GHHS existed across fewer identities, sometimes favored the marginalized group, and were not cumulative.

Design of a Novel Online, Modular, Flipped-classroom Surgical Curriculum for East, Central, and Southern Africa.

Objective: We describe a structured approach to developing a standardized curriculum for surgical trainees in East, Central, and Southern Africa (ECSA). Summary Background Data: Surgical education is essential to closing the surgical access gap in ECSA. Given its importance for surgical education, the development of a standardized curriculum was deemed necessary. Methods: We utilized Kern's 6-step approach to curriculum development to design an online, modular, flipped-classroom surgical curriculum. Steps included global and targeted needs assessments, determination of goals and objectives, the establishment of educational strategies, implementation, and evaluation. Results: Global needs assessment identified the development of a standardized curriculum as an essential next step in the growth of surgical education programs in ECSA. Targeted needs assessment of stakeholders found medical knowledge challenges, regulatory requirements, language variance, content gaps, expense and availability of resources, faculty numbers, and content delivery method to be factors to inform curriculum design. Goals emerged to increase uniformity and consistency in training, create contextually relevant material, incorporate best educational practices, reduce faculty burden, and ease content delivery and updates. Educational strategies centered on developing an online, flipped-classroom, modular curriculum emphasizing textual simplicity, multimedia components, and incorporation of active learning strategies. The implementation process involved establishing thematic topics and subtopics, the content of which was authored by regional surgeon educators and edited by content experts. Evaluation was performed by recording participation, soliciting user feedback, and evaluating scores on a certification examination. Conclusions: We present the systematic design of a large-scale, context-relevant, data-driven surgical curriculum for the ECSA region.

Assessment of the Prevalence of Medical Student Mistreatment by Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Sexual Orientation.

Importance: Previous studies have shown that medical student mistreatment is common. However, few data exist to date describing how the prevalence of medical student mistreatment varies by student sex, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation. Objective: To examine the association between mistreatment and medical student sex, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study analyzed data from the 2016 and 2017 Association of American Medical Colleges Graduation Questionnaire. The questionnaire annually surveys graduating students at all 140 accredited allopathic US medical schools. Participants were graduates from allopathic US medical schools in 2016 and 2017. Data were analyzed between April 1 and December 31, 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures: Prevalence of self-reported medical student mistreatment by sex, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation. Results: A total of 27 504 unique student surveys were analyzed, representing 72.1% of graduating US medical students in 2016 and 2017. The sample included the following: 13 351 female respondents (48.5%), 16 521 white (60.1%), 5641 Asian (20.5%), 2433 underrepresented minority (URM) (8.8%), and 2376 multiracial respondents (8.6%); and 25 763 heterosexual (93.7%) and 1463 lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) respondents (5.3%). At least 1 episode of mistreatment was reported by a greater proportion of female students compared with male students (40.9% vs 25.2%, P < .001); Asian, URM, and multiracial students compared with white students (31.9%, 38.0%, 32.9%, and 24.0%, respectively; P < .001); and LGB students compared with heterosexual students (43.5% vs 23.6%, P < .001). A higher percentage of female students compared with male students reported discrimination based on gender (28.2% vs 9.4%, P < .001); a greater proportion of Asian, URM, and multiracial students compared with white students reported discrimination based on race/ethnicity (15.7%, 23.3%, 11.8%, and 3.8%, respectively; P < .001), and LGB students reported a higher prevalence of discrimination based on sexual orientation than heterosexual students (23.1% vs 1.0%, P < .001). Moreover, higher proportions of female (17.8% vs 7.0%), URM, Asian, and multiracial (4.9% white, 10.7% Asian, 16.3% URM, and 11.3% multiracial), and LGB (16.4% vs 3.6%) students reported 2 or more types of mistreatment compared with their male, white, and heterosexual counterparts (P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: Female, URM, Asian, multiracial, and LGB students seem to bear a disproportionate burden of the mistreatment reported in medical schools. It appears that addressing the disparate mistreatment reported will be an important step to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion in medical education.

Concomitant Thyroid Cancer in Patients with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 Undergoing Surgery for Primary Hyperparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND: Compared to those with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism (SPHP), multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (MPHP) typically require more extensive dissection and have higher recurrence rates. Little is known about the risk of concomitant thyroid cancer in either setting. This study aimed to determine the rates and characteristics of thyroid cancer for MPHP versus SPHP patients undergoing parathyroidectomy. METHODS: Patients with MPHP (diagnosed by clinical and/or genetic criteria) or SPHP who had initial or reoperative parathyroid exploration from 1967 to 2014 were identified via a prospective database. The thyroid cancer-specific data for MPHP patients (n = 29) were compared to a selected 2:1 age- and sex-matched SPHP cohort (n = 58) who all had concurrent thyroidectomy for any reason. Clinically significant thyroid cancer was defined as >1 cm in diameter. RESULTS: In the MPHP group, 24/29 (83%) thyroidectomies were preoperatively unplanned versus 20/58 (34%) in the SPHP matched cohort (p < 0.01), and in this setting there was no difference in the rate of histologic thyroid cancer (3/24 [13%] vs. 5/20 [25%], p = 0.44). Histologic thyroid cancer was identified in 8/29 (28%) MPHP versus 27/58 (47%) SPHP patients (p = 0.11). Despite observed differences in the time period and extent of thyroidectomy, MPHP patients did not have an increased likelihood of thyroid cancer (surgery before 2005: odds ratio [OR] = 2.57, p = 0.09; total thyroidectomy: OR = 5.47, p < 0.01; MPHP: OR = 1.14, p = 0.83). All MPHP thyroid cancers were characterized as conventional papillary thyroid cancer (PTC), while thyroid cancers in SPHP patients included both PTC (66%) and follicular-variant PTC (34%). No MPHP patient had clinically significant thyroid cancer compared to an incidence of 15/58 (26%) in SPHP patients (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Although patients with MEN1 have a substantial incidence of thyroid cancer (28%) and undergo more unplanned thyroidectomies during parathyroidectomy than do patients with SPHP, clinically significant thyroid cancer is proportionally uncommon.

Perceptions Regarding Mentorship Among General Surgery Trainees With Academic Career Intentions.

OBJECTIVE: Effective mentorship may be an opportunity to mitigate career de-prioritization, improve stress management, and bolster professional growth. Relatively few studies address specific challenges that occur for general surgery trainees. We conducted a focus group-based investigation to determine facilitators/barriers to effective mentorship among general surgery residents, who are intending to pursue an academic career. DESIGN: A semistructured focus group study was conducted to explore residents' attitudes and experiences regarding (1) needs for mentorship, (2) barriers to identifying mentors, and (3) characteristics of successful mentor-mentee interactions. Subjects self-identified and were characterized as either "Mentored" or "Nonmentored." Transcriptions were independently reviewed by 3 coders. Inter-rater reliability between the coders was evaluated by calculating Cohen's kappa for each coded item. SETTING: General surgery residents from 2 academic tertiary hospitals, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, and University of Washington, participated. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-four general surgery trainees were divided into 8 focus groups. RESULTS: There were no gender-based differences in mentoring needs among residents. Barriers to establishing a relationship with a mentor, such as lack of exposure to faculty, and time and determination on the part of both mentor and mentee, were exacerbated by aspects of surgical culture including gender dynamics, criticism, and hierarchy. Successful relationships between mentee and mentor were perceived to require personal/professional compatibility and a feeling that the mentor is invested in the mentee, while conflicts of interest and neglect detracted from a successful relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Our investigations demonstrate the importance of surgical hierarchy and culture in facilitating interpersonal interactions with potential mentors. Further studies will be necessary to determine how best to address these barriers.

How can surgeons facilitate resident intraoperative decision-making?

BACKGROUND: Cognitive skills such as decision-making are critical to developing operative autonomy. We explored resident decision-making using a recollection of specific examples, from the attending surgeon and resident, after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. METHODS: In a separate semi-structured interview, the attending and resident both answered five questions, regarding the resident's operative roles and decisions, ways the attending helped, times when the attending operated, and the effect of the relationship between attending and resident. Themes were extracted using inductive methods. RESULTS: Thirty interviews were completed after 15 cases. Facilitators of decision-making included dialogue, safe struggle, and appreciation for retraction. Aberrant case characteristics, anatomic uncertainties, and time pressures provided barriers. Attending-resident mismatches included descriptions of transitioning control to the attending. CONCLUSIONS: Reciprocal dialogue, including concept-driven feedback, is helpful during intraoperative teaching. Unanticipated findings impede resident decision-making, and we describe differences in understanding transfers of operative control. Given these factors, we suggest that pre-operative discussions may be beneficial.