Gαi/o-coupled receptor signaling restricts pancreatic ß-cell expansion.

Gi-GPCRs, G protein-coupled receptors that signal via Gα proteins of the i/o class (Gαi/o), acutely regulate cellular behaviors widely in mammalian tissues, but their impact on the development and growth of these tissues is less clear. For example, Gi-GPCRs acutely regulate insulin release from pancreatic ß cells, and variants in genes encoding several Gi-GPCRs--including the α-2a adrenergic receptor, ADRA2A--increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, type 2 diabetes also is associated with reduced total ß-cell mass, and the role of Gi-GPCRs in establishing ß-cell mass is unknown. Therefore, we asked whether Gi-GPCR signaling regulates ß-cell mass. Here we show that Gi-GPCRs limit the proliferation of the insulin-producing pancreatic ß cells and especially their expansion during the critical perinatal period. Increased Gi-GPCR activity in perinatal ß cells decreased ß-cell proliferation, reduced adult ß-cell mass, and impaired glucose homeostasis. In contrast, Gi-GPCR inhibition enhanced perinatal ß-cell proliferation, increased adult ß-cell mass, and improved glucose homeostasis. Transcriptome analysis detected the expression of multiple Gi-GPCRs in developing and adult ß cells, and gene-deletion experiments identified ADRA2A as a key Gi-GPCR regulator of ß-cell replication. These studies link Gi-GPCR signaling to ß-cell mass and diabetes risk and identify it as a potential target for therapies to protect and increase ß-cell mass in patients with diabetes.

Effectiveness of fecal-derived microbiota transfer using orally administered capsules for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), a complication of antibiotic-induced injury to the gut microbiome, is a prevalent and dangerous cause of infectious diarrhea. Antimicrobial therapy for CDI is typically effective for acute symptoms, but up to one third of patients later experience recurrent CDI. Fecal-derived microbiota transplantation (FMT) can ameliorate the underlying dysbiosis and is highly effective for recurrent CDI. Traditional methods of FMT are limited by patient discomfort, risk and inefficient procedures. Many individuals with recurrent CDI have extensive comorbidities and advanced age. Widespread use of FMT requires strategies that are non-invasive, scalable and applicable across healthcare settings. METHODS: A method to facilitate microbiota transfer was developed. Fecal samples were collected and screened for potential pathogens. Bacteria were purified, concentrated, cryopreserved and formulated into multi-layered capsules. Capsules were administered to patients with recurrent CDI, who were then monitored for 90 days. RESULTS: Thirteen women and six men with recurrent CDI were provided with microbiota transfer with orally administered capsules. The procedure was well tolerated. Thirteen individuals responded to a single course. Four patients were cured after a second course. There were 2 failures. The cumulative clinical cure rate of 89% is similar to the rates achieved with reported fecal-derived transplantation procedures. CONCLUSIONS: Recurrent CDI represents a profound dysbiosis and a debilitating chronic disease. Stable cure can be achieved by restoring the gut microbiome with an effective, well-tolerated oral capsule treatment. This strategy of microbiota transfer can be widely applied and is particularly appropriate for frail patients.

Research-Based Product Innovation to Address Critical Unmet Needs of Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.

Despite progress in recent decades, patients with inflammatory bowel diseases face many critical unmet needs, demonstrating the limitations of available treatment options. Addressing these unmet needs will require interventions targeting multiple aspects of inflammatory bowel disease pathology, including disease drivers that are not targeted by available therapies. The vast majority of late-stage investigational therapies also focus primarily on a narrow range of fundamental mechanisms. Thus, there is a pressing need to advance to clinical stage differentiated investigational therapies directly targeting a broader range of key mechanistic drivers of inflammatory bowel diseases. In addition, innovations are critically needed to enable treatments to be tailored to the specific underlying abnormal biological pathways of patients; interventions with improved safety profiles; biomarkers to develop prognostic, predictive, and monitoring tests; novel devices for nonpharmacological approaches such as minimally invasive monitoring; and digital health technologies. To address these needs, the Crohn's & Colitis Foundation launched IBD Ventures, a venture philanthropy-funding mechanism, and IBD Innovate®, an innovative, product-focused scientific conference. This special IBD Innovate® supplement is a collection of articles reflecting the diverse and exciting research and development that is currently ongoing in the inflammatory bowel disease field to deliver innovative and differentiated products addressing critical unmet needs of patients. Here, we highlight the pipeline of new product opportunities currently advancing at the preclinical and early clinical development stages. We categorize and describe novel and differentiated potential product opportunities based on their potential to address the following critical unmet patient needs: (1) biomarkers for prognosis of disease course and prediction/monitoring of treatment response; (2) restoration of eubiosis; (3) restoration of barrier function and mucosal healing; (4) more effective and safer anti-inflammatories; (5) neuromodulatory and behavioral therapies; (6) management of disease complications; and (7) targeted drug delivery.

We highlight the pipeline of investigational therapies, diagnostics, and devices with potential to address pressing unmet needs of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases, including biomarkers for prognosis and treatment response, restoration of eubiosis and mucosal healing, neuromodulation, and improved control of inflammation and disease complications.

Epinephrine Production in Th17 Cells and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalitis.

Epinephrine is a hormone secreted primarily by medullary cells of the adrenal glands which regulates permeability of blood-brain barrier (BBB). Recent studies showed signaling by epinephrine/epinephrine receptor in T cells is involved in autoimmune diseases. Nevertheless, the production of epinephrine by T cells and its pathogenic function in T cells are not well investigated. Our results show that phenylethanol N-methyltransferase (PNMT), a rate-limiting enzyme of epinephrine synthesis, is specifically expressed in vitro in differentiated TH17 cells and in tissue-resident TH17 cells. Indeed, expression levels of enzymes involved in epinephrine production are higher in TH17 cells from animals after EAE induction. The induction of PNMT was not observed in other effector T cell subsets or regulatory T cells. Epinephrine producing TH17 cells exhibit co-expression of GM-CSF, suggesting they are pathogenic TH17 cells. To delineate the function of epinephrine-production in TH17 cells, we generated a TH17-specific knockout of tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) by breeding a Th-flox and a ROR-gt-CRE mouse (Th-CKO). Th-CKO mice are developmentally normal with an equivalent T lymphocyte number in peripheral lymphoid organs. Th-CKO mice also show an equivalent number of TH17 cells in vivo and following in vitro differentiation. To test whether epinephrine-producing TH17 cells are key for breaching the BBB, migration of T cells through mouse brain endothelial cells was investigated in vitro. Both epi+ wild-type and epi- TH17 cells migrate through an endothelial cell barrier. Mice were immunized with MOG peptide to induce experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) and disease progression was monitored. Although there is a reduced infiltration of CD4+ T cells in Th-CKO mice, no difference in clinical score was observed between Th-CKO and wild-type control mice. Increased neutrophils were observed in the central nervous system of Th-CKO mice, suggesting an alternative pathway to EAE progression in the absence of TH17 derived epinephrine.

Precise pattern of recombination in serotonergic and hypothalamic neurons in a Pdx1-cre transgenic mouse line.

BACKGROUND: Multicellular organisms are characterized by a remarkable diversity of morphologically distinct and functionally specialized cell types. Transgenic techniques for the manipulation of gene expression in specific cellular populations are highly useful for elucidating the development and function of these cellular populations. Given notable similarities in developmental gene expression between pancreatic ß-cells and serotonergic neurons, we examined the pattern of Cre-mediated recombination in the nervous system of a widely used mouse line, Pdx1-cre (formal designation, Tg(Ipf1-cre)89.1Dam), in which the expression of Cre recombinase is driven by regulatory elements upstream of the pdx1 (pancreatic-duodenal homeobox 1) gene. METHODS: Single (hemizygous) transgenic mice of the pdx1-creCre/0 genotype were bred to single (hemizygous) transgenic reporter mice (Z/EG and rosa26R lines). Recombination pattern was examined in offspring using whole-mount and sectioned histological preparations at e9.5, e10.5, e11.5, e16.5 and adult developmental stages. RESULTS: In addition to the previously reported pancreatic recombination, recombination in the developing nervous system and inner ear formation was observed. In the central nervous system, we observed a highly specific pattern of recombination in neuronal progenitors in the ventral brainstem and diencephalon. In the rostral brainstem (r1-r2), recombination occurred in newborn serotonergic neurons. In the caudal brainstem, recombination occurred in non-serotonergic cells. In the adult, this resulted in reporter expression in the vast majority of forebrain-projecting serotonergic neurons (located in the dorsal and median raphe nuclei) but in none of the spinal cord-projecting serotonergic neurons of the caudal raphe nuclei. In the adult caudal brainstem, reporter expression was widespread in the inferior olive nucleus. In the adult hypothalamus, recombination was observed in the arcuate nucleus and dorsomedial hypothalamus. Recombination was not observed in any other region of the central nervous system. Neuronal expression of endogenous pdx1 was not observed. CONCLUSIONS: The Pdx1-cre mouse line, and the regulatory elements contained in the corresponding transgene, could be a valuable tool for targeted genetic manipulation of developing forebrain-projecting serotonergic neurons and several other unique neuronal sub-populations. These results suggest that investigators employing this mouse line for studies of pancreatic function should consider the possible contributions of central nervous system effects towards resulting phenotypes.

Defining the Path Forward for Biomarkers to Address Unmet Needs in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.

Despite major advances in the inflammatory bowel diseases field, biomarkers to enable personalized and effective management are inadequate. Disease course and treatment response are highly variable, with some patients experiencing mild disease progression, whereas other patients experience severe or complicated disease. Periodic endoscopy is performed to assess disease activity; as a result, it takes months to ascertain whether a treatment is having a positive impact on disease progression. Minimally invasive biomarkers for prognosis of disease course, prediction of treatment response, monitoring of disease activity, and accurate diagnosis based on improved disease phenotyping and classification could improve outcomes and accelerate the development of novel therapeutics. Rapidly developing technologies have great potential in this regard; however, the discovery, validation, and qualification of biomarkers will require partnerships including academia, industry, funders, and regulators. The Crohn's & Colitis Foundation launched the IBD Biomarker Summit to bring together key stakeholders to identify and prioritize critical unmet needs; prioritize promising technologies and consortium approaches to address these needs; and propose harmonization approaches to improve comparability of data across studies. Here, we summarize the outcomes of the 2018 and 2019 meetings, including consensus-based unmet needs in the clinical and drug development context. We highlight ongoing consortium efforts and promising technologies with the potential to address these needs in the near term. Finally, we summarize actionable recommendations for harmonization, including data collection tools for improved consistency in disease phenotyping; standardization of informed consenting; and development of guidelines for sample management and assay validation. Taken together, these outcomes demonstrate that there is an exceptional alignment of priorities across stakeholders for a coordinated effort to address unmet needs of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases through biomarker science.

Biomarkers of Crohn's Disease to Support the Development of New Therapeutic Interventions.

BACKGROUND: Currently, 2 coprimary end points are used by health authorities to determine the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions in patients with Crohn's disease (CD): symptomatic remission (patient-reported outcome assessment) and endoscopic remission (ileocolonoscopy). However, there is lack of accepted biomarkers to facilitate regulatory decision-making in the development of novel therapeutics for the treatment of CD. METHODS: With support from the Helmsley Charitable Trust, Critical Path Institute formed the Crohn's Disease Biomarkers preconsortium (CDBpC) with members from the pharmaceutical industry, academia, and nonprofit organizations to evaluate the CD biomarker landscape. Biomarkers were evaluated based on biological relevance, availability of biomarker assays, and clinical validation data. RESULTS: The CDBpC identified the most critical need as pharmacodynamic/response biomarkers to monitor disease activity in response to therapeutic intervention. Fecal calprotectin (FC) and serum C-reactive protein (CRP) were identified as biomarkers ready for the regulatory qualification process. A number of exploratory biomarkers and potential panels of these biomarkers was also identified for additional development. Given the different factors involved in CD and disease progression, a combination of biomarkers, including inflammatory, tissue injury, genetic, and microbiome-associated biomarkers, will likely have the most utility. CONCLUSIONS: The primary focus of the Inflammatory Bowel Disease Regulatory Science Consortium will be development of exploratory biomarkers and the qualification of FC and CRP for IBD. The Inflammatory Bowel Disease Regulatory Science Consortium, focused on tools to support IBD drug development, will operate in the precompetitive space to share data, biological samples for biomarker testing, and assay information for novel biomarkers.

Challenges in IBD Research: Precision Medicine.

Precision medicine is part of five focus areas of the Challenges in IBD research document, which also includes preclinical human IBD mechanisms, environmental triggers, novel technologies, and pragmatic clinical research. The Challenges in IBD Research document provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) research and delivers actionable approaches to address them. It is the result of a multidisciplinary input from scientists, clinicians, patients, and funders, and represents a valuable resource for patient centric research prioritization. In particular, the precision medicine section is focused on highlighting the main gap areas that must be addressed to get closer to treatments tailored to the biological and clinical characteristics of each patient, which is the aim of precision medicine. The main gaps were identified in: 1) understanding and predicting the natural history of IBD: disease susceptibility, activity, and behavior; 2) predicting disease course and treatment response; and 3) optimizing current and developing new molecular technologies. Suggested approaches to bridge these gaps include prospective longitudinal cohort studies to identify and validate precision biomarkers for prognostication of disease course, and prediction and monitoring of treatment response. To achieve this, harmonization across studies is key as well as development of standardized methods and infrastructure. The implementation of state-of-the-art molecular technologies, systems biology and machine learning approaches for multi-omics and clinical data integration and analysis will be also fundamental. Finally, randomized biomarker-stratified trials will be critical to evaluate the clinical utility of validated signatures and biomarkers in improving patient outcomes and cost-effective care.

Challenges in IBD Research: Environmental Triggers.

Environmental triggers is part of five focus areas of the Challenges in IBD research document, which also includes preclinical human IBD mechanisms, novel technologies, precision medicine and pragmatic clinical research. The Challenges in IBD research document provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) research and delivers actionable approaches to address them. It is the result of a multidisciplinary input from scientists, clinicians, patients, and funders, and represents a valuable resource for patient centric research prioritization. In particular, the environmental triggers section is focused on the main research gaps in elucidating causality of environmental factors in IBD. Research gaps were identified in: 1) epidemiology of exposures; 2) identification of signatures of biological response to exposures; and 3) mechanisms of how environmental exposures drive IBD. To address these gaps, the implementation of longitudinal prospective studies to determine disease evolution and identify sub-clinical changes in response to exposures is proposed. This can help define critical windows of vulnerability and risk prediction. In addition, systems biology analysis and in silico modeling were proposed as approaches to integrate the IBD exposome for the identification of biological signatures of response to exposures, and to develop prediction models of the effects of environmental factors in driving disease activity and response to therapy. This research could lead to identification of biomarkers of exposures and new modalities for therapeutic intervention. Finally, hypothesis-driven mechanistic studies to understand gene-environment interactions and to validate causality of priority factors should be performed to determine how environment influences clinical outcomes.

Challenges in IBD Research: Preclinical Human IBD Mechanisms.

Preclinical human IBD mechanisms is part of five focus areas of the Challenges in IBD research document, which also include environmental triggers, novel technologies, precision medicine and pragmatic clinical research. The Challenges in IBD research document provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) research and delivers actionable approaches to address them. It is the result of a multidisciplinary input from scientists, clinicians, patients, and funders, and represents a valuable resource for patient centric research prioritization. In particular, the preclinical human IBD mechanisms manuscript is focused on highlighting the main research gaps in the pathophysiological understanding of human IBD. These research gap areas include: 1) triggers of immune responses; 2) intestinal epithelial homeostasis and wound repair; 3) age-specific pathophysiology; 4) disease complications; 5) heterogeneous response to treatments; and 6) determination of disease location. As an approach to address these research gaps, the prioritization of reverse translation studies is proposed in which clinical observations are the foundation for experimental IBD research in the lab, and for the identification of new therapeutic targets and biomarkers. The use of human samples in validating basic research findings and development of precision medicine solutions is also proposed. This prioritization aims to put emphasis on relevant biochemical pathways and humanized in vitro and in vivo models that extrapolate meaningfully to human IBD, to eventually yield first-in-class and effective therapies.

Challenges in IBD Research: Novel Technologies.

Novel technologies is part of five focus areas of the Challenges in IBD research document, which also includes preclinical human IBD mechanisms, environmental triggers, precision medicine and pragmatic clinical research. The Challenges in IBD research document provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) research and delivers actionable approaches to address them. It is the result of a multidisciplinary input from scientists, clinicians, patients, and funders, and represents a valuable resource for patient centric research prioritization. In particular, the novel technologies section is focused on prioritizing unmet clinical needs in IBD that will benefit from novel technologies applied to: 1) non-invasive detection and monitoring of active inflammation and assessment of treatment response; 2) mucosal targeted drug delivery systems; and 3) prevention of post-operative septic complications and treatment of fistulizing complications. Proposed approaches include development of multiparametric imaging modalities and biosensors, to enable non invasive or minimally invasive detection of pro-inflammatory signals to monitor disease activity and treatment responses. Additionally, technologies for local drug delivery to control unremitting disease and increase treatment efficacy while decreasing systemic exposure are also proposed. Finally, research on biopolymers and other sealant technologies to promote post-surgical healing; and devices to control anastomotic leakage and prevent post-surgical complications and recurrences are also needed.

Challenges in IBD Research: Pragmatic Clinical Research.

Pragmatic clinical research is part of five focus areas of the Challenges in IBD research document, which also includes preclinical human IBD mechanisms, environmental triggers, novel technologies, and precision medicine. The Challenges in IBD research document provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) research and delivers actionable approaches to address them. It is the result of multidisciplinary input from scientists, clinicians, patients, and funders, and represents a valuable resource for patient centric research prioritization. In particular, the pragmatic clinical research section is focused on highlighting gaps that need to be addressed in order to optimize and standardize IBD care. Identified gaps include: 1) understanding the incidence and prevalence of IBD; 2) evaluating medication positioning to increase therapeutic effectiveness; 3) understanding the utility of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM); 4) studying pain management; and 5) understanding healthcare economics and resources utilization. To address these gaps, there is a need to emphasize the use of emerging data sources and real-world evidence to better understand epidemiologic and therapeutic trends in IBD, expanding on existing data to better understand how and where we should improve care. Proposed approaches include epidemiological studies in ethnically and geographically diverse cohorts to estimate incidence and prevalence of IBD and impact of diversity on treatment patterns and outcomes. The implementation of new clinical trial design and methodologies will be essential to evaluate optimal medication positioning, appropriate use of TDM in adults and children, and multidisciplinary approaches to IBD pain management and its impact on healthcare resources.

Blood-Brain Barrier Deterioration and Hippocampal Gene Expression in Polymicrobial Sepsis: An Evaluation of Endothelial MyD88 and the Vagus Nerve.

Systemic infection can initiate or exacerbate central nervous system (CNS) pathology, even in the absence of overt invasion of bacteria into the CNS. Recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that human survivors of sepsis have an increased risk of long-term neurocognitive decline. There is thus a need for improved understanding of the physiological mechanisms whereby acute sepsis affects the CNS. In particular, MyD88-dependent activation of brain microvascular endothelial cells and a resulting loss of blood-brain barrier integrity have been proposed to play an important role in the effects of systemic inflammation on the CNS. Signaling through the vagus nerve has also been considered to be an important component of CNS responses to systemic infection. Here, we demonstrate that blood-brain barrier permeabilization and hippocampal transcriptional responses during polymicrobial sepsis occur even in the absence of MyD88-dependent signaling in cerebrovascular endothelial cells. We further demonstrate that these transcriptional responses can occur without vagus nerve input. These results suggest that redundant signals mediate CNS responses in sepsis. Either endothelial or vagus nerve activation may be individually sufficient to transmit systemic inflammation to the central nervous system. Transcriptional activation in the forebrain in sepsis may be mediated by MyD88-independent endothelial mechanisms or by non-vagal neuronal pathways.

Inactivation of 5-HT(2C) receptors potentiates consequences of serotonin reuptake blockade.

The enhancement of central serotonin system function underlies the therapeutic effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which have become the most commonly used class of antidepressant agents. However, many individuals experience depressive episodes that are resistant to SSRI treatment. Homeostatic mechanisms that limit the extent to which SSRIs enhance serotonergic neurotransmission have been implicated in this phenomenon. Here, we report a novel strategy for enhancing the efficacy of SSRIs. Using in vivo microdialysis methods in rats, the nonselective 5-HT2 receptor antagonist ketanserin was observed to produce a robust augmentation of citalopram-, fluoxetine-, and sertraline-induced elevations of hippocampal extracellular serotonin levels. Similar effects were also observed in cortex. The potentiation of SSRI-induced increases in hippocampal serotonin levels was reproduced by the 5-HT(2C) receptor-selective antagonists SB 242084 and RS 102221, but not by the 5-HT(2A) receptor-selective antagonist MDL 100 907. Although 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonists augmented the actions of SSRIs, they had no effect on extracellular serotonin levels or tail suspension responses when administered alone. These results were in strong accord with independent findings using a line of 5-HT(2C) receptor-null mutant mice. Although this mutation did not affect baseline extracellular serotonin levels or tail suspension test (TST) behavior, it enhanced fluoxetine effects on serotonin levels and immobility in the TST. These findings reveal an unanticipated pharmacological action of 5-HT(2C) receptors that warrants consideration in the development of novel strategies for the treatment of depression.

Convergence of the insulin and serotonin programs in the pancreatic ß-cell.

OBJECTIVE: Despite their origins in different germ layers, pancreatic islet cells share many common developmental features with neurons, especially serotonin-producing neurons in the hindbrain. Therefore, we tested whether these developmental parallels have functional consequences. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used transcriptional profiling, immunohistochemistry, DNA-binding analyses, and mouse genetic models to assess the expression and function of key serotonergic genes in the pancreas. RESULTS: We found that islet cells expressed the genes encoding all of the products necessary for synthesizing, packaging, and secreting serotonin, including both isoforms of the serotonin synthetic enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase and the archetypal serotonergic transcription factor Pet1. As in serotonergic neurons, Pet1 expression in islets required homeodomain transcription factor Nkx2.2 but not Nkx6.1. In ß-cells, Pet1 bound to the serotonergic genes but also to a conserved insulin gene regulatory element. Mice lacking Pet1 displayed reduced insulin production and secretion and impaired glucose tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: These studies demonstrate that a common transcriptional cascade drives the differentiation of ß-cells and serotonergic neurons and imparts the shared ability to produce serotonin. The interrelated biology of these two cell types has important implications for the pathology and treatment of diabetes.

Serotonin regulates pancreatic beta cell mass during pregnancy.

During pregnancy, the energy requirements of the fetus impose changes in maternal metabolism. Increasing insulin resistance in the mother maintains nutrient flow to the growing fetus, whereas prolactin and placental lactogen counterbalance this resistance and prevent maternal hyperglycemia by driving expansion of the maternal population of insulin-producing beta cells. However, the exact mechanisms by which the lactogenic hormones drive beta cell expansion remain uncertain. Here we show that serotonin acts downstream of lactogen signaling to stimulate beta cell proliferation. Expression of serotonin synthetic enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase-1 (Tph1) and serotonin production rose sharply in beta cells during pregnancy or after treatment with lactogens in vitro. Inhibition of serotonin synthesis by dietary tryptophan restriction or Tph inhibition blocked beta cell expansion and induced glucose intolerance in pregnant mice without affecting insulin sensitivity. Expression of the G alpha(q)-linked serotonin receptor 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor-2b (Htr2b) in maternal islets increased during pregnancy and normalized just before parturition, whereas expression of the G alpha(i)-linked receptor Htr1d increased at the end of pregnancy and postpartum. Blocking Htr2b signaling in pregnant mice also blocked beta cell expansion and caused glucose intolerance. These studies reveal an integrated signaling pathway linking beta cell mass to anticipated insulin need during pregnancy. Modulators of this pathway, including medications and diet, may affect the risk of gestational diabetes.

Chronic citalopram administration causes a sustained suppression of serotonin synthesis in the mouse forebrain.

BACKGROUND: Serotonin (5-HT) is a neurotransmitter with important roles in the regulation of neurobehavioral processes, particularly those regulating affect in humans. Drugs that potentiate serotonergic neurotransmission by selectively inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin (SSRIs) are widely used for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Although the regulation of serotonin synthesis may be an factor in SSRI efficacy, the effect of chronic SSRI administration on 5-HT synthesis is not well understood. Here, we describe effects of chronic administration of the SSRI citalopram (CIT) on 5-HT synthesis and content in the mouse forebrain. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Citalopram was administered continuously to adult male C57BL/6J mice via osmotic minipump for 2 days, 14 days or 28 days. Plasma citalopram levels were found to be within the clinical range. 5-HT synthesis was assessed using the decarboxylase inhibition method. Citalopram administration caused a suppression of 5-HT synthesis at all time points. CIT treatment also caused a reduction in forebrain 5-HIAA content. Following chronic CIT treatment, forebrain 5-HT stores were more sensitive to the depleting effects of acute decarboxylase inhibition. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Taken together, these results demonstrate that chronic citalopram administration causes a sustained suppression of serotonin synthesis in the mouse forebrain. Furthermore, our results indicate that chronic 5-HT reuptake inhibition renders 5-HT brain stores more sensitive to alterations in serotonin synthesis. These results suggest that the regulation of 5-HT synthesis warrants consideration in efforts to develop novel antidepressant strategies.