Factors related to sensory properties and consumer acceptance of vegetables.

Many consumers perceive the bitter taste or other sensory characteristic of vegetables as unpleasant, posing a challenge to dietary recommendations aiming to increase vegetable consumption. Food experience is multisensory, with complex interactions between the senses and individual differences in sensory perception. This review focuses on the factors affecting sensory properties of vegetables and sensory perception of vegetables among adults. Topical examples of sensory quality and evaluation of vegetable samples are presented. Cultivar and growing conditions are related to the internal sensory quality of vegetables. The effects of different processing methods, such as freezing and cooking, on the sensory properties of vegetables are also reviewed. Flavor modification of vegetables with seasonings may be used to improve palatability and incorporating vegetables to meals may increase the intake of vegetables. Recently, external factors (e.g. visual and odor stimuli) have been tested in multisensory research in the context of vegetable perception and choice. These options to achieve better sensory quality, more palatable meals and pleasant eating context may be used to promote vegetable intake among adults.

Development and evaluation of a stand-alone index for the assessment of small children's diet quality.

OBJECTIVE: To construct and evaluate an independent Children's Index of Diet Quality (CIDQ). DESIGN: A food consumption questionnaire, which contained twenty-five multiple-item questions on eating and food intake, was formulated and evaluated against 7 d food records. Key questions that best reflected a healthy diet, defined in criteria set by the nutrient recommendations, were searched and validated by correlation and analyses of receiver-operating characteristic curves. Settings A cohort of a young population of South-West Finland. SUBJECTS: Participants (n 400) were 2-6-year-old children. RESULTS: Fifteen questions were identified to best depict the children's diet quality in reference to the recommendations. These questions were scored, summarized and further constructed into a three-class index (good, moderate and poor dietary quality) where higher scores depicted better diet quality. The CIDQ cut-off score of 14 points for good dietary quality had a sensitivity of 0.59 and a specificity of 0.82 and the cut-off score of 10 points, for at least moderate dietary quality, had a sensitivity of 0.77 and a specificity of 0.69. Higher index scores were related to higher dietary intakes of several vitamins, lower dietary intakes of SFA and cholesterol, and further with lower serum cholesterol and higher serum vitamin C concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The three-class food index was found to represent diet quality as defined in recommendations and evaluated against nutrient intakes from food diaries and biochemical markers. This self-standing index could provide an effective and low-burden method to obtain information about diet quality and guide future recommendations.

Food neophobia associates with lower dietary quality and higher BMI in Finnish adults.

OBJECTIVE: Food neophobia has been associated with decreased consumption of vegetables mainly among children. We hypothesized that food neophobia in adults is also associated with lower overall dietary quality and higher BMI. DESIGN: Data for the present cross-sectional analyses were derived from parents in a follow-up family study. SETTING: The STEPS study, a longitudinal study of health and development of a cohort of children born in south-west Finland. SUBJECTS: The parents, 1178 women (age 19-45 years, mean 32·2 years) and 1013 men (age 18-57 years, mean 34·1 years), completed a questionnaire at home when their child was 13 months old. The questionnaire included the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS; range 10-70), the Index of Diet Quality (IDQ; range 0-16) and a measure of fruit and vegetable consumption. At that time the participants' height and weight were also measured by a research nurse to calculate BMI. RESULTS: Compared with the food neophilics (FNS score 10-24), the food neophobics (FNS score 40-70) consumed fewer vegetables (women: 15 v. 10 portions/week; men: 13 v. 7 portions/week), scored lower on the IDQ (women: 9·7 v. 8·5; men: 8·8 v. 7·8) and had higher BMI (women: 24·2 v. 26·0 kg/m²; men: 26·5 v. 27·5 kg/m²) as tested by one-way ANOVA, with all P values <0·001 in women and <0·05 in men. The food neophobics followed a diet lower in nutritional quality than did the food neophilics, especially regarding vegetables. CONCLUSIONS: Food neophobia may complicate adaptation to dietary recommendations and predispose to overweight.

Factors explaining individual differences in the oral perception of capsaicin, l-menthol, and aluminum ammonium sulfate.

This research focused on the oral perception of naturally occurring chemical food compounds that are used in the pharma and food industries due to their pharmacological properties. They stimulate chemically sensitive receptors of the somatosensory system and are also chemesthetic compounds. Capsaicin is a naturally occurring alkaloid activating pungency perception. l-Menthol is a cyclic monoterpene working also as a medical cooling agent. Aluminum ammonium sulfate is used as a dehydrating agent and additive known to activate astringency in oral cavity. The objective of the study was to identify factors explaining individual differences in the perception of oral chemesthesis measured as sensitivity to chemesthetic compounds and their recognition. The subjects (N = 205) evaluated quality-specific prototypic compounds at five different concentration levels. Differences between gender were discovered in capsaicin sensitivity with men being less sensitive than women. Age was associated with the perception of capsaicin, l-menthol, aluminum ammonium sulfate, and the combined oral chemesthetic sensitivity. Quality-specific recognition ratings were also contributing to the sensitivity to chemesthetic compounds. A combined oral chemesthetic recognition score was created based on quality-specific recognition ratings. Increasing age generally indicated weaker recognition skills. Better recognizers had a higher combined oral chemesthetic sensitivity score than poorer recognizers. These results provide new information about chemesthesis. The results suggest that age and gender are important factors in explaining individual differences in sensitivity to capsaicin, l-menthol, and aluminum ammonium sulfate. In addition, recognition skills are associated with the sensitivity based on the quality-specific recognition scores.

Probiotics and dietary counselling targeting maternal dietary fat intake modifies breast milk fatty acids and cytokines.

PURPOSE: Breast milk fatty acids possess immunomodulatory properties, and new intervention strategies beyond supplementation of maternal diet with single oils are called for. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of dietary intervention during pregnancy and breastfeeding on breast milk fatty acid and cytokine composition. METHODS: Pregnant women were randomised into three study groups: dietary intervention with probiotics (diet/probiotic) or with placebo (diet/placebo) and a control group (control/placebo). Dietary intervention included dietary counselling and provision of rapeseed oil-based food products. The probiotics used were Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 in combination. Dietary intake was evaluated by food records at every trimester of pregnancy and 1 month postpartum. Breast milk samples were collected after birth (colostrum) and 1 month after delivery for fatty acid and cytokine analysis (n = 125). RESULTS: Dietary intervention improved the quality of fat in the diet. In breast milk, the proportion of α-linolenic acid and total n-3 fatty acids was higher in both dietary intervention groups compared with control group (p < 0.05). In the diet/probiotic group, the γ-linolenic acid content was higher compared with the diet/placebo group (p < 0.05). The concentrations of TNF-α, IL-10, IL-4 and IL-2 were higher in both dietary intervention groups compared with controls, and furthermore, long-chain n-3 fatty acids were associated with several cytokines in colostrum samples. CONCLUSION: The present intervention demonstrated the possibility of modifying breast milk immunomodulatory factors by dietary means.

Nudging Finnish Adults into Replacing Red Meat with Plant-Based Protein via Presenting Foods as Dish of the Day and Altering the Dish Sequence.

This study investigated whether Finnish working-aged omnivores (n = 163) could be nudged into replacing red meat with a fava-bean-based protein source via "Dish of the Day" (DoD) and main dish sequence alteration (SA) strategies in a controlled real-world Finnish self-service buffet restaurant with smart scales (Flavoria® Multidisciplinary Research Platform). A further aim was to study whether the effectiveness of the strategies differed by gender, age, and body mass index. The participants were assigned one of four experimental treatments: standard menu (T1), DoD (T2), standard menu + SA (T3), or DoD + SA (T4). The participants could choose any amount or combination of salad components and casseroles with minced meat or fava bean protein. Being subjected to a DoD menu and/or SA had no effect on main dish choice or the share of the meat-based dish in the meal weight. Men were more likely to choose a meat-based main dish and had a higher share of the meat dish in the meal weight compared to women, but no differences were observed between those aged 18-29, 30-44, or 45-65 years or those who were normal weight, overweight, or obese. Future studies should have a larger sample size and investigate food choice motives such as price or environmental awareness.

The Individual Differences in the Perception of Oral Chemesthesis Are Linked to Taste Sensitivity.

Chemesthesis is a part of the flavor experience of foods. Chemesthetic perception is studied to understand its effect on food-related behavior and health. Thus, the objective of this research was to study individual differences in chemesthetic perception. Our study involved sensory tests of three chemesthetic modalities (astringency, pungency, and cooling). Participants (N = 196) evaluated the intensity of samples in different concentrations using a line scale under sensory laboratory conditions. Aluminum ammonium sulfate, capsaicin, and menthol were used as the prototypic chemesthetic compounds. The participants were divided into sensitivity groups in different chemesthetic modalities by hierarchical clustering based on their intensity ratings. In addition, an oral chemesthesis sensitivity score was determined to represent the generalized chemesthesis sensitivity. The results showed that people can perceive chemesthesis on different intensity levels. There were significantly positive correlations between (1) sensitivity scores for oral chemesthesis and taste as well as (2) each chemesthesis and taste modalities. Moreover, based on the multinomial logistic regression model, significant interactions between oral chemesthesis and taste sensitivity were discovered. Our findings showed that people can be classified into different oral chemesthesis sensitivity groups. The methods and results of this study can be utilized to investigate associations with food-related behavior and health.

Dietary habits and nutrient intake of Finnish adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate food and nutrient intake and especially eating during the school day among Finnish secondary-school pupils. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire mailed to home and by 48 h dietary recall interviews performed at schools in 2007. SETTING: Twelve schools in three cities in Finland. SUBJECTS: The seventh grade pupils (a total of 1469 at the mean age of 13.8 years). Questionnaire data were available from 726 pupils and dietary data from a subgroup of 40 % (n 306). RESULTS: According to the questionnaire data, 40 % of the girls and 28 % of the boys reported eating fresh vegetables daily and the respective figures for fruit were 32 % and 23 %. Altogether, 71 % of the adolescents reported having school lunch every day. The average intake of sucrose was higher and the average intakes of fibre, iron, folate and vitamin D were lower than recommended. School lunch provided around 20 % of daily energy intake, while the recommended daily energy intake level is one-third. However, the school lunch as consumed was nutritionally superior to the other daily meals. Snacks provided 41 % of the daily energy. The most common sources of sucrose were sugary drinks. CONCLUSIONS: Low consumption of fruit and vegetables and abundant consumption of sucrose-rich drinks and snacks are the main problems in the diet of Finnish adolescents. The nutritional quality of the school lunch is good, but the supply of healthy snacks must be improved in schools. Schools can promote healthy eating habits by making healthy choices easy during the school day.

The diet of adolescents can be improved by school intervention.

OBJECTIVE: To decrease the intake of sucrose, increase the intake of fibre and the consumption of fruit and vegetables among secondary-school pupils. DESIGN: Intervention study among eighth grade pupils during one school year. Data were collected by questionnaires and from a subgroup of pupils by 48 h dietary recall at baseline in spring 2007 and after the intervention in 2008. SETTING: Twelve secondary schools were randomly allocated to intervention (IS) and control schools (CS) within three cities. Intervention included nutrition education and improvement of the food environment focusing particularly on the quality of snacks at school. SUBJECTS: A total of 659 pupils completed the questionnaires and the dietary recall was obtained from 287 pupils both at baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: The frequency of consumption of rye bread increased (P = 0.03) and that of sweets decreased (P = 0.006) among girls in the IS. The intake of sucrose fell among IS pupils, from 12.8 % to 10.5 % of the total energy intake (P = 0.01). Intake of fruit (g/MJ) remained the same in IS, whereas it decreased in CS (P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Sugar intake can be lowered by improving the quality of snacks, but it is more difficult to increase fibre intake and fruit and vegetable consumption unless the content of school lunches can be modified. It is the responsibility of the adults working in schools to create a healthy environment and to make healthy choices easy for pupils.

Food Consumption and Emotions at a Salad Lunch Buffet in a Multisensory Environment.

The food experience is multisensory and multisensory external stimuli may affect food choice and emotions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a multisensory eating environment on food choice, intake and the emotional states of the subjects in a salad lunch buffet setting. A total of 30 female subjects consumed a salad lunch twice in the multisensory laboratory. The two test conditions (control and multisensory condition with environmental stimuli) were randomized and the visits were scheduled one week apart. Subjects selected and ate a meal from a salad buffet including 14 food items and the intake of each item was weighed. They answered an online questionnaire about the meal and their emotional states (20 different emotion terms) after the lunch. There was no significant difference in the food consumption between the control and multisensory conditions. The subjects were very satisfied with their lunch for both study visits but the pleasantness of the eating environment was rated higher under the multisensory condition. In emotional terms, the subjects selected the term "happy" significantly more frequently under the multisensory condition compared with the control. In conclusion, the multisensory eating environment in this study was not related to food intake but may be associated with positive emotions. The effect of the eating environment on food choice and experience deserves further study with a larger study population in a real lunch restaurant setting.

Taste Sensitivity Is Associated with Food Consumption Behavior but not with Recalled Pleasantness.

As taste perception varies between individuals, it might be important in explaining food consumption behavior. Previous studies have focused on sensitivity to the bitter tastant PROP (6-n-propylthiouracil) concerning eating with little attention paid to other tastants. For the first time, connections between food consumption behavior, pleasantness, and taste sensitivity are studied with five taste modalities. Sensitivity to bitterness, sourness, umami, saltiness, and sweetness as well as an overall taste sensitivity score was determined with intensity evaluation for 199 Finnish adults. Recalled pleasantness and food consumption behavior were enquired with online questionnaires. Consumption concerned intake of vegetables, fruits, and berries; use-frequency of specific foods; and tendency to mask or modify tastes of foods. All modality-specific taste sensitivities were related to some consumption behavior but none to recalled pleasantness. A higher taste sensitivity score indicated avoidance of coffee, lower consumption of pungent foods, and a more frequent habit of adding ketchup to a meal. In conclusion, it may be more informative to study the influence of taste sensitivity on food consumption behavior with taste modalities separately rather than with a general indicator of taste sensitivity. Additionally, these results highlight the importance of studying actual behavior toward food and not just liking.

Individual Differences in the Perception of Color Solutions.

The color of food is important for flavor perception and food selection. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the visual color perception of liquid samples among Finnish adult consumers by their background variables. Participants (n = 205) ranked six different colored solutions just by looking according to four attributes: from most to least pleasant, healthy, sweet and sour. The color sample rated most frequently as the most pleasant was red (37%), the most healthy white (57%), the most sweet red and orange (34% both) and the most sour yellow (54%). Ratings of certain colors differed between gender, age, body mass index (BMI) and education groups. Females regarded the red color as the sweetest more often than males (p = 0.013) while overweight subjects rated the orange as the sweetest more often than normal weight subjects (p = 0.029). Personal characteristics may be associated with some differences in color associations.

Effect of Salt Reduction on Consumer Acceptance and Sensory Quality of Food.

Reducing salt (NaCl) intake is an important public health target. The food industry and catering services are searching for means to reduce the salt content in their products. This review focuses on options for salt reduction in foods and the sensory evaluation of salt-reduced foods. Simple salt reduction, mineral salts and flavor enhancers/modifiers (e.g., umami compounds) are common options for salt reduction. In addition, the modification of food texture and odor-taste interactions may contribute to enhanced salty taste perception. Maintaining consumer acceptance of the products is a challenge, and recent examples of the consumer perception of salt-reduced foods are presented.

Similar bifidogenic effects of prebiotic-supplemented partially hydrolyzed infant formula and breastfeeding on infant gut microbiota.

The aim of the study was to assess the quantitative and qualitative differences of the gut microbiota in infants. We evaluated gut microbiota at the age of 6 months in 32 infants who were either exclusively breast-fed, formula-fed, nursed by a formula supplemented with prebiotics (a mixture of fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides) or breast-fed by mothers who had been given probiotics. The Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Clostridium and Lactobacillus/Enterococcus microbiota were assessed by the fluorescence in situ hybridization, and Bifidobacterium species were further characterized by PCR. Total number of bifidobacteria was lower among the formula-fed group than in other groups (P=0.044). Total amounts of the other bacteria were comparable between the groups. The specific Bifidobacterium microbiota composition of the breast-fed infants was achieved in infants receiving prebiotic supplemented formula. This would suggest that early gut Bifidobacterium microbiota can be modified by special diets up to the age of 6 months.

Impact of sensory-based food education in kindergarten on willingness to eat vegetables and berries.

BACKGROUND: Children use all of their senses when exploring new foods, and sensory-based food education provides new possibilities for promoting healthy dietary habits. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of sensory-based food education activities on children's willingness to eat test samples of selected vegetables and berries. DESIGN: Two kindergartens in Hanko, Finland, participated in the study and the subjects were children aged 3-6 years, divided in the intervention (n=44) and control (n=24) kindergarten. In the intervention kindergarten, five sensory-based food education sessions focusing on vegetables and berries were implemented, once per week for 5 weeks. A tasting protocol was performed with the children at baseline and after the intervention. The willingness to eat (5 different vegetables and 3 Finnish berries) was categorised. Parents also filled in a questionnaire on the children's food preferences at home. RESULTS: In the intervention kindergarten, the willingness to eat the samples increased significantly (p≤0.001, Wilcoxon and Friedman), while in the control kindergarten, no significant change was observed when all of the test samples were taken into account. The parental report of their children's preferences and children's actual eating of the test samples corresponded relatively weakly. CONCLUSIONS: Sensory-based food education activities may promote a willingness to eat vegetables and berries. Child-centred test methods are important for evaluating the effects of dietary interventions among children.

Elective caesarean section is associated with low adiponectin levels in cord blood.

BACKGROUND: Caesarean section rates have increased in parallel with those of obesity. Decreased levels of adiponectin, an adipocyte-derived metabolic hormone present in abundant concentrations in cord blood and breast milk, have been documented in association with obesity in children and adults. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the mode of delivery affects adiponectin concentrations in cord blood of healthy term infants. METHODS: The cord blood adiponectin concentration was measured in 159 consecutive term infants, of whom 131 (82.4%) were born by vaginal delivery, 15 (9.4%) by nonelective caesarean section and 13 (8.2%) by elective caesarean section. RESULTS: The mean adiponectin level was significantly lower in infants born by elective caesarean section compared with those born by vaginal delivery: 15.3 µg/ml (SD = 6.8) and 21.6 µg/ml (SD = 7.3), respectively (p = 0.015). This difference remained significant after adjustment for the infants' gender and birth weight as well as maternal weight and weight gain during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Elective caesarean section may carry a risk of obesity independently of maternal risk factors.

Maternal dietary counseling reduces total and LDL cholesterol postpartum.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary counseling on blood lipid concentrations during and after pregnancy. METHODS: Partcipants (N = 256) were randomized into three study groups: dietary counseling with probiotics or placebo and a control group at first trimester of pregnancy. Diet quality was evaluated from food records by an index of healthy eating and total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoproteins A-I and B, and lipoprotein (a) were measured at the first and third trimesters of pregnancy and 1, 6, and 12 mo postpartum. RESULTS: During pregnancy, no differences in lipid values were noted among the groups, but postpartum TC and LDL-C were lower in both dietary counseling groups compared with controls (P = 0.027 and P = 0.012, respectively). Higher points on the healthy eating index, normal weight, and regular exercise were associated with a more favorable lipid profile at 12 mo after delivery. CONCLUSION: Maternal dietary counseling may lower maternal TC and LDL-C levels postpartum. A healthy lifestyle during pregnancy and postpartum may benefit women's cardiovascular health.

Genetic variation in the hTAS2R38 taste receptor and food consumption among Finnish adults.

Genetic variation in bitter taste receptors, such as hTAS2R38, may affect food preferences and intake. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between bitter taste receptor haplotypes and the consumption of vegetables, fruits, berries and sweet foods among an adult Finnish population. A cross-sectional design utilizing data from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns cohort from 2007, which consisted of 1,903 men and women who were 30-45 years of age from five different regions in Finland, was employed. DNA was extracted from blood samples, and hTAS2R38 polymorphisms were determined based on three SNPs (rs713598, rs1726866 and rs10246939). Food consumption was assessed with a validated food frequency questionnaire. The prevalence of the bitter taste-sensitive (PAV/PAV) haplotype was 11.3 % and that of the insensitive (AVI/AVI) haplotype was 39.5 % among this Finnish population. PAV homozygotic women consumed fewer vegetables than did the AVI homozygotic women, 269 g/day (SD 131) versus 301 g/day (SD 187), respectively, p = 0.03 (multivariate ANOVA). Furthermore, the intake of sweet foods was higher among the PAV homozygotes of both genders. Fruit and berry consumption did not differ significantly between the haplotypes in either gender. Individuals perceive foods differently, and this may influence their patterns of food consumption. This study showed that the hTAS2R38 taste receptor gene variation was associated with vegetable and sweet food consumption among adults in a Finnish population.

How practice meets guidelines: evaluation of nutrition counselling in Finnish well-women and well-baby clinics.

AIM: To assess the current practices of nutrition counselling given by nurses in well-women (WW) and well-baby (WB) clinics in Finland. DESIGN: A semi-structured questionnaire was distributed to nurses and their clients in clinics nationwide. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The source and the quality of nutrition counselling and specific conditions including allergic diseases and vitamin D supplementation. RESULTS: The clinics constituted the most important source of information for the clients. Personal counselling was highly appreciated. However, 83% of pregnant women reported having received dietary counselling, which deviates from the figure reported by nurses (99%, p=0.0003). Counselling concerning allergies was targeted to reduce the risk of infant allergy by means of elimination diets. In contrast to the report of the nurses (60% in WW and 18% in WB clinics), only 16% (p<0.0001) of the pregnant and 7% (p=0.022) of the breastfeeding women reported that they had been advised to use vitamin D supplements during the winter season. CONCLUSION: This study calls for co-operation between scientists, governmental policy makers and healthcare professionals to ensure a continuous chain of information, applicable to nutrition counselling, from scientific data to everyday practice.

Breast milk fatty acids may link innate and adaptive immune regulation: analysis of soluble CD14, prostaglandin E2, and fatty acids.

In addition to its role in sensing intraluminal microbial antigens, soluble (s)CD14 may regulate immune responses by its lesser known function as a lipid carrier with possible influences in the production of fatty acid-derived eicosanoids. We investigated the interrelations of fatty acids, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and sCD14 and their role in infant atopic eczema during the first year of life. Serum and breast milk samples from mothers and serum samples from their infants were collected at infant's age 3 mo and analyzed for sCD14 and PGE2 concentrations and for fatty acid compositions. The main correlation of sCD14 was with arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) (AA). Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (20:3n-6) (DHGLA) and the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids correlated positively and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) (DHA) and sum of n-3 fatty acid negatively with PGE2 in mother's serum and linoleic acid (LA) negatively with PGE2 in breast milk. Soluble CD14 tended to be higher and LA, total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), and sum of n-6 fatty acids were lower in breast milk received by infants with atopic eczema compared with those without. These results suggest that fatty acids contribute to the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses and link intraluminal exposures, mother's diet, and microbes.