The current status of environmental forensic science in the member institutes of the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI).

The paper presents the results of a questionnaire survey carried out by The Forensic laboratory of the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI-FL), aiming to get an overview of the current status of environmental forensic science (EFS) and environmental crimes investigation in the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI). A questionnaire was sent out to 71 ENFSI member institutes and the response rate was 44%. The results of the survey indicate that the issue of environmental crime is taken seriously in most participating countries, but a need for improvement in the approach to the issue was identified. Countries define environmental crime differently and have different law structures regarding what kind of actions are considered environmental crimes. The most frequently mentioned actions were waste dumping, pollution, inappropriate handling of chemicals and hazardous waste, oil spills, illicit excavation and wildlife crime and trading.The different roles of the authorities involved in the investigative process seem to be somewhat unclear in several countries. Most institutes participated on some level in the forensic processes related to environmental crime cases. The most common tasks performed in forensic institutes were the analysis of environmental samples and interpretation of the results. Only three institutes had case coordination services related to EFS. Participation in sample collection was rare but a clear developmental need was identified. A majority of the respondents acknowledged a need for increased scientific collaboration and education in the field of EFS.

Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for C60 fullerene analysis: optimisation and comparison of three ionisation techniques.

The increasing use and production of nanomaterials have led to growing concern over the release of new pollutants to the environment. Fullerenes have been a subject of intense research, both because of their unique chemistry and because of technological applications. The development of analytical methods to quantify the fullerenes in complex sample matrices is a crucial step in the study of their occurrence and exposure, and thus in risk assessment. This paper reports the development and optimisation of a method combining liquid chromatography with ion-trap mass spectrometry (LC-ITMS) for analysis of the fullerene C(60). Under the optimised chromatogram conditions, a C(18) analytical column had good selectivity for fullerenes C(60) and C(70), with retention times of 3.0 and 4.1 min, respectively. Mass spectrometric detection was tested and optimised using three common ionisation techniques-atmospheric-pressure chemical ionisation (APCI), atmospheric-pressure photoionisation (APPI), and electrospray ionisation (ESI). The molecular ion was most abundant for C (60) (-) (m/z=720) in APCI and APPI, whereas adduct ions were formed with the molecular ion in ESI. Finally, the performance of the three ionisation techniques examined was compared by use of five validation criteria. The instrument detection limit (8 ng mL(-1)), quantification limit (27 ng mL(-1)), detection sensitivity (90.2 ng mL(-1)), linear range (8-1,000 ng mL(-1)), and repeatability (15 %) of APPI make it the most promising ionisation technique for fullerene C(60) analysis.

Illicit drug profiling practices in Finland: An exploratory study about end users' perceptions.

Illicit drug profiling (i.e. chemical and/or physical profiling) to compare and relate illicit drugs samples has been actively used in routine case work at the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) in Finland. This preliminary and exploratory work reviews NBI's illicit drug profiling practices. Particular emphasis is put on communication of forensic results and how the NBI has promoted the use of forensic data in an intelligence perspective by establishing a case coordination service. Moreover, our study evaluates the comprehension, integration and usefulness of illicit drug profiling from end users' point of view by means of an online survey and face-to-face interviews. Findings are compared with theoretical aspects as described in literature. Results show that in the Finnish context illicit drug profiling is used and useful in the investigation and in court. From end users' perspective, real practical relevance relies in its use as intelligence during the investigation. However, to be truly useful, illicit drug profiling results must be communicated promptly during the investigation, with sufficient clarity and interpreted correctly by end users. Factors influencing the integration of illicit drug profiling in the forensic process are addressed.

In vivo and in vitro toxicity of decabromodiphenyl ethane, a flame retardant.

Toxicity of a relative new flame retardant, namely decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), marketed as an alternative to decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) was assessed both in vivo and in vitro using the freshly separated fish hepatocyte assay and standardized water flea and zebrafish egg-larvae tests. The fish hepatocyte assay, based on the synthesis and secretion of vitellogenin from isolated male liver cells produced a clear dose-response curve in the presence of DBDPE. DBDPE induced the induction of hepatic ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity at low test concentrations, but started to inhibit the activity at higher concentrations. Also, the induction of the hepatocyte conjugation activity, uridinediphosphoglucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT), was induced with no signs of inhibition even at the highest test concentration. The reduced EROD activity resulted in a drop in the production of vitellogenin by the cells. In vivo tests showed that DBDPE was acutely toxic to water fleas, the 48 h EC-50 value being 19 microg/L. Moreover, DBDPE reduced the hatching rates of exposed zebra-fish eggs and raised significantly the mortality of hatched larvae. Because there is hardly any information available on the effects of DBDPE on the aquatic environments, it is crucial to obtain more data on the effects and effective concentrations of DBDPE along with its occurrence in the environment. Such data would enable reliable assessments of the risks posed by this flame retardant.

Comparison of toxicity of congener-153 of PCB, PBB, and PBDE to Daphnia magna.

Acute and reproductive toxicity tests were performed to assess the effects of two polybrominated flame retardants, polybrominated biphenyl (PBB)-153, polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE)-153, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-153 on Daphnia magna. According to the 24-h acute toxicity test, up to concentration of 210 microg/L, these chemicals were not toxic to Daphnia. In the reproductive tests, we used concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 microg/L. At the concentrations of 50 and 100 microg/L, the Daphnia started to die after the second test day, and there were no Daphnia alive on the fourth test day. The testing was continued using the concentrations of 12.5 and 25 microg/L. The reproductive tests were then repeated using only concentrations of 12.5 and 25 microg/L. The results, based on the weight per volume (w/v) concentrations, showed that of the three compounds we tested PCB-153 had the most severe effects on the Daphnia reproduction. PBDE-153 was the least toxic, although in this group, too, offspring production was significantly lower and mortality significantly higher than those in the control group. Also, it was observed that PCB-153 accumulated into the parent Daphnia nearly three times more actively than the two other chemicals we tested. These chemicals, although having very similar structures, seem to affect differently the reproduction of Daphnia. They also seem to accumulate differently into Daphnia. Thus, further research data are needed to understand the mechanisms responsible for the effects caused by these kinds of chemicals and to assess their risks accurately.

First systematic chemical profiling of cocaine police seizures in Finland in the framework of an intelligence-led approach.

For the first time in Finland, the chemical profiling of cocaine specimens was performed at the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI). The main goals were to determine the chemical composition of cocaine specimens sold in the Finnish market and to study the distribution networks of cocaine in order to provide intelligence related to its trafficking. An analytical methodology enabling through one single GC-MS injection the determination of the added cutting agents (adulterants and diluents), the cocaine purity and the chemical profile (based on the major and minor alkaloids) for each specimen was thus implemented and validated. The methodology was found to be efficient for the discrimination between specimens coming from the same source and specimens coming from different sources. The results highlighted the practical utility of the chemical profiling, especially for supporting the investigation through operational intelligence and improving the knowledge related to the cocaine trafficking through strategic intelligence.

Photochemical reactivity of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in conditions representing surface water.

Potential of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) to degrade via indirect photolysis in aquatic solution under conditions representing surface water was studied. Globally distributed and bioaccumulative PFOA does not absorb solar radiation by itself, but may be potentially photochemically transformed by the natural sensitizers such as dissolved organic matter (DOM), nitrate or ferric iron. Reaction solutions containing purified water, fulvic acid (representing DOM), nitrate, ferric iron or sea water from the Baltic Sea were spiked with PFOA and irradiated with an artificial sun (290-800 nm). In comparison similar samples were also irradiated under UV radiation at 254 nm in order to study the direct photolysis. UV radiation at 254 nm decomposed PFOA to perfluoroheptanoic-, perfluorohexanoic- and perfluoropentanoic acids. The samples irradiated with an artificial sun contained no decomposition products and no decrease in PFOA concentration was observed. According to the detection limit of the products and typical solar radiation at the surface of ocean, the photochemical half-life for PFOA was estimated to be at least 256 years at the depth of 0 m, >5000 years in the mixing layer of open ocean and >25,000 years in coastal ocean. This is significantly more than the previously reported photochemical half-life of PFOA (>0.96 years).

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of polychlorinated biphenyls using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization and atmospheric pressure photoionization microchips.

Gas chromatography (GC) and ion trap mass spectrometry (MS) were combined with microchip atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (microAPCI) and microchip atmospheric pressure photoionization (microAPPI) sources. Selected polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, IUPAC Nos. 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153 and 180) were analyzed by GC/microAPCI-MS and GC/microAPPI-MS to demonstrate the applicability of the miniaturized ion sources in negative ion mode analysis. The microAPCI and microAPPI methods were evaluated in respect of detection limit, linearity and repeatability. The detection limits for the PCB congeners were somewhat lower with microAPCI than with microAPPI, whereas microAPPI showed slightly wider linear range and better repeatability. With both methods, the best results were obtained for highly chlorinated or non-ortho-chlorinated PCBs, which possess the highest electron affinities. Finally, the suitability of the GC/microAPPI-MS method for the analysis of PCBs in environmental samples was demonstrated by analyzing soil extracts, and by comparing the results with those obtained by gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC/ECD).