Optimization of Automated Dimethylmethylene Blue Assay for Quantification of Pediatric Urine Samples.

The metachromatic dye dimethylmethylene blue is used to quantify total glycosaminoglycans in urine. Understanding the interaction of dimethylmethylene blue with glycosaminoglycans is pertinent to optimize the assay procedure depending on the type of sample and interpret the findings meaningfully. The present spectrophotometric study determined the optimum sample-to-dye ratio, primary wavelength for measuring absorbance, after studying the interaction of two different chondroitin sulfate species (unfractionated chondroitin sulfate from bovine trachea vs. chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharide with degree of polymerization of 12, from shark cartilage) with dimethylmethylene blue. Respective dye-glycosaminoglycan complexes of the two chondroitin sulfate species showed significantly different absorbance maxima, while that of the chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharide was closer to absorbance maxima of urine glycosaminoglycans. The chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharide showed relatively less stable absorbance readings at higher concentrations in the reaction volume. Furthermore, the chondroitin sulfate reference materials exhibited differences in the linearity of standard curves and hence parallelism. Based on the findings, the method was semiautomated on Beckman Coulter D✕C 700 biochemistry analyzer using the chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharide as the standard. The urine glycosaminoglycan concentration obtained was slightly lower but reasonably close to that obtained through the External Quality Assurance (EQA) scheme administrated by ERNDIM (European Research Network, Inherited Disorders of Metabolism). The findings of the present study can be used to guide the dimethylmethylene blue assay optimization, redevelopment efforts, and harmonization across laboratories. The chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharide is better than the unfractionated chondroitin sulfate from bovine trachea due to its absorbance maxima closer to urine glycosaminoglycans. On the other hand, unfractionated chondroitin sulfate exhibit poor parallelism leading to falsely lower urine glycosaminoglycan levels.

Abnormal Porphyrin Metabolism in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Therapeutic Implications.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a mosaic of neurodevelopmental conditions composed of early-onset social interaction and communication deficits, along with repetitive and/or restricted patterns of activities, behavior, and interests. ASD affects around 1% of children worldwide, with a male predominance. Energy, porphyrin, and neurotransmitter homeostasis are the key metabolic pathways affected by heavy metal exposure, potentially implicated in the pathogenesis of ASD. Exposure to heavy metals can lead to an altered porphyrin metabolism due to enzyme inhibition by heavy metals. Heavy metal exposure, inborn genetic susceptibility, and abnormal thiol and selenol metabolism may play a significant role in the urinary porphyrin profile anomalies observed in ASD. Altered porphyrin metabolism in ASD may also be associated with, vitamin B6 deficiency, hyperoxalemia, hyperhomocysteinemia, and hypomagnesemia. The present review considers the abnormal porphyrin metabolism in ASD in relation to the potential pathogenic mechanism and discusses the possible metabolic therapies such as vitamins, minerals, cofactors, and antioxidants that need to be explored in future research. Such targeted therapeutic therapies would bring about favorable outcomes such as improvements in core and co-occurring symptoms.

Biochemical, Genetic and Clinical Diagnostic Approaches to Autism-Associated Inherited Metabolic Disorders.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impaired social interaction, limited communication skills, and restrictive and repetitive behaviours. The pathophysiology of ASD is multifactorial and includes genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, whereas a causal relationship has been described between ASD and inherited metabolic disorders (IMDs). This review describes biochemical, genetic, and clinical approaches to investigating IMDs associated with ASD. The biochemical work-up includes body fluid analysis to confirm general metabolic and/or lysosomal storage diseases, while the advances and applications of genomic testing technology would assist with identifying molecular defects. An IMD is considered likely underlying pathophysiology in ASD patients with suggestive clinical symptoms and multiorgan involvement, of which early recognition and treatment increase their likelihood of achieving optimal care and a better quality of life.

The Rationale for Vitamin, Mineral, and Cofactor Treatment in the Precision Medical Care of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Children with autism spectrum disorder may exhibit nutritional deficiencies due to reduced intake, genetic variants, autoantibodies interfering with vitamin transport, and the accumulation of toxic compounds that consume vitamins. Importantly, vitamins and metal ions are essential for several metabolic pathways and for neurotransmitter functioning. The therapeutic benefits of supplementing vitamins, minerals (Zinc, Magnesium, Molybdenum, and Selenium), and other cofactors (coenzyme Q10, alpha-lipoic acid, and tetrahydrobiopterin) are mediated through their cofactor as well as non-cofactor functions. Interestingly, some vitamins can be safely administered at levels far above the dose typically used to correct the deficiency and exert effects beyond their functional role as enzyme cofactors. Moreover, the interrelationships between these nutrients can be leveraged to obtain synergistic effects using combinations. The present review discusses the current evidence for using vitamins, minerals, and cofactors in autism spectrum disorder, the rationale behind their use, and the prospects for future use.

Urine Organic Acid Analysis: Key Diagnostic Test for Fumaric Aciduria in a Sri Lankan Child.

Fumaric aciduria resulting from fumarate hydratase deficiency is a rare inherited disorder of the Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle that is characterized by neurologic manifestations, a spectrum of brain abnormalities, and the excretion of fumaric acid in urine. We describe a 3 year old Sri Lankan boy who was referred at age 10 months with poor weight gain and hypotonia for further laboratory investigations. In addition to global developmental delay, there were noticeable dysmorphic features with a prominent forehead, low-set ears, micrognathia, and hypertelorism with persistent neutropenia. Urine organic acid assay revealed a massive elevation of fumaric acid on 2 occasions. Molecular analysis revealed a homozygous likely pathogenic missense variant, NM000143.3:c.1048C>T p. (Arg350Trp), in the FH gene, confirming the biochemical diagnosis. Our patient was the first patient in Sri Lanka molecularly diagnosed with fumaric aciduria. This case study highlights the importance of performing organic acid assays in children presenting with neurologic manifestations especially when these are suspected to have a metabolic basis.

Sulfur amino acid metabolism and related metabotypes of autism spectrum disorder: A review of biochemical evidence for a hypothesis.

There are multiple lines of evidence for an impaired sulfur amino acid (SAA) metabolism in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). For instance, the concentrations of methionine, cysteine and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) in body fluids of individuals with ASD is significantly lower while the concentration of S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) is significantly higher as compared to healthy individuals. Reduced methionine and SAM may reflect impaired remethylation pathway whereas increased SAH may reflect reduced S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase activity in the catabolic direction. Reduced SAM/SAH ratio reflects an impaired methylation capacity. We hypothesize multiple mechanisms to explain how the interplay of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mercury exposure, maternal use of valproate, altered gut microbiome and certain genetic variants may lead to these SAA metabotypes. Furthermore, we also propose a number of mechanisms to explain the metabolic consequences of abnormal SAA metabotypes. For instance in the brain, reduced SAM/SAH ratio will result in melatonin deficiency and hypomethylation of a number of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA and histones. In addition to previously proposed mechanisms, we propose that impaired activity of "radical SAM" enzymes will result in reduced endogenous lipoic acid synthesis, reduced molybdenum cofactor synthesis and impaired porphyrin metabolism leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, porphyrinuria and impaired sulfation capacity. Furthermore depletion of SAM may also lead to the disturbed mTOR signaling pathway in a subgroup of ASD. The proposed "SAM-depletion hypothesis" is an inclusive model to explain the relationship between heterogeneous risk factors and metabotypes observed in a subset of children with ASD.