Control of cell proliferation by steroids: the role of 17HSDs.

Sex steroid hormone signaling regulates the development, growth, and functioning of the breast and the prostate and plays a role in the development and progression of cancer in these organs. The intracellular concentration of active sex steroid hormones in target tissues is regulated by several enzymes, including 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSDs). Changes in the expression patterns of these enzymes may play a pathophysiological role in malignant transformation. We recently analyzed the mRNA expressions of the 17HSD type 1, 2, and 5 enzymes in about 800 breast carcinoma specimens. Both 17HSD type 1 and 2 mRNAs were detected in normal breast tissue from premenopausal women but not in specimens from postmenopausal women. The patients with tumors expressing 17HSD type 1 mRNA or protein had significantly shorter overall and disease-free survival than the other patients. The expression of 17HSD type 5 was significantly higher in breast tumor specimens than in normal tissue. Cox multivariate analyses showed that 17HSD type 1, tumor size, and estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) had independent prognostic significance. We developed, using a LNCaP prostate cancer cell line, a model to study the malignant transformation of prostate cancer and showed that androgen-sensitive LNCaP cells are transformed into neuroendocrine-like cells when cultured without androgens and, eventually into highly proliferating androgen-independent cells. We conducted Northern hybridizations and microarrays to analyze the gene expression during these processes. Substantial changes in the expressions of steroid metabolizing enzymes occurred during the transformation process. The variations in steroid-metabolizing enzymes during cancer progression may be crucial in the regulation of the growth and function of organs.

In vitro binding to an in vivo effect on the cytosol and nuclear progesterone receptors of various progestins, and their relationship to synthesis of uteroglobin in rabbit uterus.

In vitro binding affinities of various progestins to cytosol and nuclear progesterone receptors of rabbit uterus were determined and correlated with the biological potency of these steroids. In addition, cytosol and nuclear progesterone receptor levels were measured after a 5-day administration of different progestins (0.5 mg/kg daily) with variable biologic activities. The receptor levels were compared with the biological response; the induction of uteroglobin synthesis. Cytosol and nuclear progesterone receptors had identical steroid binding properties (r = 0.98). The correlation between the in vitro binding affinity (cytosol or nuclear) and the in vivo biologic activity of the steroids was good (r = 0.73). After a 5-day treatment with progestins, the nuclear receptor concentration correlated n an inverse manner (r = -0.84) with the uterine fluid uteroglobin concentration. A similar, but slightly weaker correlation (r = -0.81) was also found for the cytosol receptor content and uteroglobin secretion. These data indicate that not only nuclear, but also cytosol progesterone receptor levels decrease in the rabbit uterus during chronic hormone action. Decline in the nuclear progesterone receptor content seemed to occur during treatment with all progestational steroids, while only progestins with high biological potency were capable of decreasing the cytosol receptor content.

Progesterone-regulated changes in transcriptional events in rabbit uterus.

The role of steroid receptors in the early events of progesterone action was elucidated by examining the temporal relationship between the nuclear accumulation of progestin receptor and changes in activities of RNA polymerases I and II, as well as that of chromatin template in rabbit uterus. Following a 5-day estrogen pretreatment, the animals received an intravenous injection of progesterone (10 mg), after which they were killed at timed intervals. Nuclear progestin receptor level, as measured by an exchange assay, reached the peak value 30 min after hormone administration (11 600 to 46 600 sites/nucleus) and declined to the control levels by 4 h. Changes in the activities of RNA polymerase I and II did not follow identical time courses: polymerase I rose at 30 min and remained elevated for 2 h and then declined to about 75% of the pretreatment activity, whereas RNA polymerase II activity increased more rapidly (at 15 min), and was followed by a sharp decrease to about 50% of the initial value. Thereafter, the latter enzyme activity rose slowly and reached the pretreatment level within 12 h of progesterone administration. Early changes in chromatin template activity were similar to those in RNA polymerase I with a second rise by 8--10 h. The early inhibition of transcriptional events by progesterone may result from antiestrogenic properties of this steroid. Accumulation of nuclear progestin receptor occurs at a similar time to early changes in the transcriptional events suggesting a regulatory role for the hormone receptor complexes.

Regulation of cytosol and nuclear progesterone receptors in rabbit uterus by estrogen, antiestrogen and progesterone administration.

A synthetic progestin, 16 alpha-ethyl-21-hydroxy-19-nor-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (ORG 2058), was utilized to measure progesterone receptors from the rabbit uterus. This steroid has a high affinity for both cytosol and nuclear receptors, with KD values of 1.2 nM (at 0--4 degrees C) and 2.3 nM (at 15 degrees C), respectively. Administration of estradiol-17 beta or a non-steroidal antiestrogen, tamoxifen, for 5 days to estrous rabbits led to a progressive rise in the cytosol receptor levels: from 34,000 to 120,000 (estradiol-17 beta) and 80,000 (tamoxifen) receptors/cell, without any major influence on the nuclear receptor content. A single intravenous injection of progesterone (5 mg/kg) elicited a 3-fold increase in the mean nuclear receptor content at 30 min after injection (from 18,000 to 48,000 receptors/nucleus). Nuclear receptor accumulation was short-lived and returned to control levels within 4 h after treatment. A second dose of progesterone given 24 h later doubled the nuclear receptor level (from 18,000 to 35,000 receptors/nucleus). The concomitant decline in the cytosol receptor content was twice that accounted for by the nuclear receptor accumulation (70,000 vs. 30,000, and 40,000 vs. 17,000 receptors/cell, after the first and second progesterone injection, respectively). Following progesterone administration, the cytosol receptor level reached a nadir by 30 min, exhibited minimal replenishment within the ensuing 24 h, and remained at approx. 50% of the pretreatment values. After a single dose or two consecutive doses of progesterone, total uterine progesterone receptor content declined to about 60% of the level prior to each dose, a nadir being reached at 2 h after treatment.

Progestins can mimic, inhibit and potentiate the actions of androgens.

There is an extensive background on the androgen responsiveness of the mouse kidney which can be demonstrated histologically by hypertrophy of the Bowman's capsule and the proximal convoluted tubule. Although androgens increase many renal proteins, beta-glucuronidase and ODC are distinguished by exquisite genetic regulation of the magnitude of the response induced by testosterone. Both the qualitative and quantitative expression of the genes for these enzymes are strain specific, and are dependent upon regulatory alleles. Ornithine decarboxylase is of particular interest since the response of this enzyme is rapid compared to that of beta-glucuronidase. Recent studies using a newly developed androgen receptor assay have demonstrated that the duration of retention of the androgen receptor complex in the nucleus correlates with the magnitude of the androgenic response. Progestins can mimic, inhibit, or potentiate the action of androgens. These responses have been termed the androgenic, antiandrogenic and synandrogenic actions of progestins, respectively. The androgenic and antiandrogenic action of this class of steroids are manifest on many tissues and on many endpoints within a given organ. These effects are believed to involve an early step(s) of androgen action which is common to all sensitive tissues. Results to date suggests that this early step involves the androgen receptor. By contrast, the synandrogenic action of progestins is limited in that it is not observed on all tissues, and not even on all endpoints within a single organ. In the mouse kidney, the synandrogenic actions of progestins have been most extensively studied on beta-glucuronidase. With this enzyme this unusual response to progestins can be demonstrated only in mice which carry the Gus-ra allele. This observation suggests that the potentiating action of progestins on beta-glucuronidase is manifest directly on the Gus gene complex. It is not certain at this time whether a similar mechanism is involved in the potentiation of androgen action on other organs such as the prostate. The androgenic action of progestins is believed to be similar to that of other androgens. Androgenic progestins such as MPA bind to the androgen receptors and translocate them to nuclei. This is followed by a dose dependent increase of proteins similar to what is observed after testosterone administration. In addition, the regulatory genes which modulate androgen action have the same effect on the androgenic effect of progestins. The fact that the potency of progestins such as MPA is less than that of testosterone is believed to relate in part to their lower affinity for the androgen receptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Expression of 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, P450 aromatase, and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types 1, 2, 5 and 7 mRNAs in human early and mid-gestation placentas.

The placenta is responsible for the production of progesterone (P) and estrogens during human pregnancy. In this study, the expression of several key steroidogenic enzymes was investigated in different cell types of human placenta during early and mid-gestation by in situ hybridization. 3Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (3beta-HSD1), P450 aromatase (P450arom) and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (17HSD1) were expressed abundantly in syncytiotrophoblast (ST) cells. These three enzymes were also detected in some column cytotrophoblast (CCT) cells. 17HSD5 was found in intravillous stromal (IS) cells in low levels, suggesting that androgens may be synthesized and metabolized in the placenta. 17HSD7 was found in all types of placental cells. Moreover, 17HSD2 was localized in IS cells. The expression level of 17HSD2 gradually increased during pregnancy weeks 7-16, concurrently with the androgen production by the male fetus. The present study provides evidence that CCT and IS cells participate in P and estrogen biosynthesis, in addition to ST cells. 17HSD2 also converts 20alpha-dihydroprogesterone (20-OH-P) to P, whereas 17HSD5 and 17HSD7 inactivate P. Therefore, the action of 3beta-HSD1 and 17HSD2 on P biosynthesis in the placenta is countered by 17HSD5 and 17HSD7, which may provide an optimal level of P for the maintenance and progression of pregnancy.

Enzymes as modulators in malignant transformation.

Experimental data suggest that sex steroids have a role in the development of breast and prostate cancers. The biological activity of sex steroid hormones in target tissues is regulated by several enzymes, including 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSD). Changes in the expression patterns of these enzymes may significantly modulate the intracellular steroid content and play a pathophysiological role in malignant transformation. To further clarify the role of 17HSDs in breast cancer, we analyzed the mRNA expressions of the 17HSD type 1, 2, and 5 enzymes in 794 breast carcinoma specimens. Both 17HSD type 1 and 2 mRNAs were detected in normal breast tissue from premenopausal women but not in specimens from postmenopausal women. Of the breast cancer specimens, 16% showed signals for 17HSD type 1 mRNA, 25% for type 2, and 65% for type 5. No association between the 17HSD type 1, 2, and 5 expressions was detected. The patients with tumors expressing 17HSD type 1 mRNA or protein had significantly shorter overall and disease-free survival than the other patients. The expression of 17HSD type 5 was significantly higher in breast tumor specimens than in normal tissue. The group with 17HSD type 5 overexpression had a worse prognosis than the other patients. Cox multivariate analyses showed that 17HSD type 1 mRNA, tumor size, and ERalpha had independent prognostic significance. Using an LNCaP prostate cancer cell line, we developed a cell model to study the progression of prostate cancer. In this model, androgen-sensitive LNCaP cells are transformed in culture conditions into more aggressive, androgen-independent cells. The model was used to study androgen and estrogen metabolism during the transformation process. Our results indicate that substantial changes in androgen and estrogen metabolism occur in the cells during the process. A remarkable decrease in oxidative 17HSD activity was seen, whereas reductive activity seemed to increase. Since local steroid metabolism controls the bioavailability of active steroid hormones of target tissues, the variations in steroid-metabolizing enzymes during cancer progression may be crucial in the regulation of the growth and function of organs.

Nuclear androgen receptors in different stages of the seminiferous epithelial cycle and the interstitial tissue of rat testis.

Testicular androgen receptors were measured with a recently developed exchange assay using [3H]methyltrienolone from samples of interstitial tissue, whole seminiferous tubules, and segments of tubules in different stages of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. The hexylene glycol method was used to isolate nuclei and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate for extraction of the androgen receptors. This method proved superior to other techniques employed by our own and other laboratories. As a consequence, higher levels of androgen receptors were detected in seminiferous tubules than previously reported. Androgen receptors in seminiferous tubules and interstitial tissue had high affinity for methyltrienolone (Kd = approximately 3 nM) and steroid binding specificity similar to that of these receptors in other tissues. The concentration of nuclear androgen receptors in whole seminiferous tubules was 670 +/- 100 fmol/mg DNA (mean +/- SE), while that of the interstitial tissue was 1070 +/- 295 fmol/mg DNA. Tubules in stages IX-XII and XIII-I of the epithelial cycle contained significantly more nuclear androgen receptors (900 +/- 170 and 805 +/- 125 fmol/mg DNA, respectively) than those in stages II-VI and VII-VIII (485 +/- 95 and 485 +/- 65 fmol/mg DNA, respectively). These results suggest that there are local differences in androgen receptor concentration along the length of the seminiferous tubule. A high concentration of nuclear androgen receptors was also present in interstitial tissue. Androgen receptors were measurable in cytosol prepared from interstitial tissue, but such measurements were obscured in cytosol from tubules, because of a high capacity binding protein for the 3H-labeled ligand. We conclude that nuclear androgen receptors can be measured in various testicular compartments, including different stages of the seminiferous tubules, using an exchange assay that maximizes recovery. The concentration of nuclear androgen receptors in the tubules varies with the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium.

Mutated human androgen receptor gene detected in a prostatic cancer patient is also activated by estradiol.

Androgens are necessary for the development of prostatic cancer. The mechanisms by which the originally androgen-dependent prostatic cancer cells are relieved of the requirement to use androgen for their growth are largely unknown. The human prostatic cancer cell line LNCaP has been shown to contain a point mutation in the human androgen receptor gene (hAR), suggesting that changes in the hAR may contribute to the abnormal hormone response of prostatic cells. To search for point mutations in the hAR, we used single strand conformation polymorphism analysis and a polymerase chain reaction direct sequencing method to screen 23 prostatic cancer specimens from untreated patients, 6 prostatic cancer specimens from treated patients, and 11 benign prostatic hyperplasia specimens. One mutation was identified in DNA isolated from prostatic cancer tissue, and the mutation was also detected in the leukocyte DNA of the patient and his offspring. The mutation changed codon 726 in exon E from arginine to leucine and was a germ line mutation. The mutation we found in exon E of the hAR gene does not alter the ligand binding specificity of the AR, but the mutated receptor was activated by estradiol to a significantly greater extent than the wild-type receptor. The AR gene mutation described in this study might be one explanation for the altered biological activity of prostatic cancer.

Human 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 messenger ribonucleic acid expression and localization in term placenta and in endometrium during the menstrual cycle.

According to the current hypothesis, 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSDs) regulate the extent of estrogen influence in the endometrium by converting estradiol (E2) locally into a biologically less active sex steroid, estrone (E1), and vice versa. Recently, we have shown that both 17HSD type 1 and type 2 are expressed in the human endometrium, and in the present work, using in situ hybridization, we show that 17HSD type 2 is localized in the glandular epithelial cells as previously shown for the type 1 enzyme, but in contrast to type 1, the expression of type 2 is highest at the end of the cycle. Hence, we hypothesize that the differential expression of the two 17HSD enzymes, with opposite activities in same cell types, could modulate intracellular E2 concentrations during the end of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. We further analyzed the expression of 17HSD type 1 and type 2 mRNAs in term human placenta. Expression of 17HSD type 1 mRNA was detected in the syncytiotrophoblasts, and signals for type 2 mRNA were found inside the villi, corresponding to cytotrophoblasts. The expression of 17HSD type 2 in the placenta may serve to maintain the presence of inactive sex steroids and attenuate the formation of biologically potent androgens and estrogens.

Complete amino acid sequence of human placental 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deduced from cDNA.

cDNA clones for 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17-HSD; EC 1.1.1.62) were isolated from a placental lambda gt11 expression library using polyclonal antibodies against placental 17-HSD. The largest cDNA contained 1325 nucleotides, consisting of a short 5'-noncoding segment, a coding segment of 987 nucleotides terminated by a TAA codon, and a 329 nucleotide long 3'-noncoding segment. The open reading frame encoded a polypeptide of 327 amino acid residues with a predicted Mr of 34853. The amino acid sequence of 23 N-terminal amino acids determined from purified 17-HSD agreed with the sequence deduced from cDNA. The deduced amino acid sequence also contained two peptides previously characterized from the proposed catalytic area of placental 17-HSD.

Mouse 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 mRNA is predominantly expressed in hepatocytes and in surface epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts.

17 beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17HSD) type 2 efficiently catalyzes the conversion of the high activity 17 beta-hydroxy forms of sex steroids into less potent 17-ketosteroids. In the present study in situ hybridization was utilized to analyze the cellular localization of 17HSD type 2 expression in adult male and female mice. The data indicate that 17HSD type 2 mRNA is expressed in several epithelial cell layers, including both absorptive and secretory epithelia as well as protective epithelium. In both males and females, strong expression of 17HSD type 2 was particularly detected in epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts. The mRNA was expressed in the stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus, and surface epithelial cells of the stomach, small intestine and colon. The hepatocytes of the liver and the thick limbs of the loops of Henle in the kidneys, as well as the epithelium of the urinary bladder, also showed strong expression of 17HSD type 2 mRNA in both male and female mice. In the genital tracts, low 17HSD type 2 expression was detected in the seminiferous tubules, the uterine epithelial cells and the surface epithelium of the ovary. Expression of the mRNA was also detected in the sebaceous glands of the skin. The results indicate that in both male and female mice, 17HSD type 2 is expressed mainly in the various epithelial cell types of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, and therefore suggest a role for the enzyme in steroid inactivation in a range of tissues and cell types not considered as classical sex steroid target tissues.

Expression and regulation of 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1.

The current data indicate that during a woman's reproductive years, 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is the major 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17HSD) involved in glandular oestradiol biosynthesis. The type 1 enzyme catalyses reduction from low-activity oestrone to high-activity oestradiol in ovarian granulosa cells and placental syncytiotrophoblasts, in which it is abundantly expressed. In addition to steroidogenic cells, 17HSD type 1 is present in certain peripheral tissues in which it reduces circulating oestrone, thus regulating the intracellular ligand supply for oestrogen receptors. Several factors and second messenger pathways are involved in the cell-specific expression of 17HSD type 1. In ovarian granulosa cells, 17HSD type 1 expression is strictly regulated by pituitary gonadotrophins, steroid hormones and growth factors, while in peripheral tissues progestins and retinoic acids, at least, affect 17HSD type 1 concentrations.

Structure and function of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and type 2.

17beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSDs) catalyze the interconversions between high-activity 17beta-hydroxysteroids and low-activity 17-ketosteroids. Several distinct 17HSD isoenzymes have been characterized. They have unique tissue distribution patterns suggesting a specific function for each of the isoenzymes in modifying sex steroid hormone activity. The activities of 17HSDs are essential for gonadal sex steroid biosynthesis and they are also involved in the modulation of steroid hormone action in peripheral tissues. 17HSD type 1 (17HSD1) is needed for estradiol biosynthesis in ovarian granulosa cells and it is also expressed in breast tissue, thus increasing locally estradiol concentration. 17HSD type 2 (17HSD2) is another 17HSD enzyme involved in estrogen metabolism. The type 2 enzyme has an opposite activity catalyzing estradiol to estrone, thereby reducing the exposure of tissues to estrogen action. Preliminary data suggest that 17HSD2 may predominate in human non-malignant breast epithelial cells, while 17HSD type 1 activity prevails in malignant cells. Determination of the three-dimensional structure of human 17HSD1 has led to an atomic level description of the estradiol binding pocket of the enzyme and an understanding of its mechanism of action, and the molecular basis for the estrogen-specificity of the enzyme. Deprivation of an estrogen response by using specific 17HSD1 inhibitors is a tempting approach to treat estrogen-dependent breast cancer.

Cytokine regulation of the expression of estrogenic biosynthetic enzymes in cultured rat granulosa cells.

Both P450 aromatase (P450arom) and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17HSD) type 1 are key enzymes in the ovarian E(2) biosynthesis. Cytokines have been suggested to be mediators between the immune and the reproductive systems, and they may play a role as paracrine or autocrine ovarian regulatory factors. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) have been shown to modulate the FSH-induced E(2) production in immature rat granulosa cells. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of these cytokines on the activity and expression of the 17HSD type 1 enzyme in cultured undifferentiated granulosa cells. Furthermore, the expression of P450arom was also analyzed. The granulosa cells obtained from the ovaries of immature DES-treated rats were initially cultured for 48 h with no other treatment and then incubated with or without the test reagents for an additional 48 h. The treatment of the granulosa cells with cytokines alone did not affect the activity of 17HSD type 1 as assessed by the conversion of tritiated substrate. However, both TNFalpha and IL-1beta caused a dose-dependent inhibition of the recombinant FSH-induced enzyme activity and the Forskoline-induced expression of 17HSD type 1 and P450arom mRNAs. The cytokines only slightly inhibited the 8-Br-cAMP-induced P450arom expression. In contrast, the inhibitory cytokine effects on 17HSD type 1 expression and activity were not abolished by the presence of 8-Br-cAMP. Despite the presence of inhibitors of protein kinase C (staurosporine) or tyrosine kinases (genistein), the inhibitory effects of TNFalpha and IL-1beta on the Forskoline-induced expression of 17HSD type 1 and P450arom and the Forskoline-induced 17HSD activity were not blocked. The data show a dose dependent inhibitory effect of TNFalpha and IL-1beta on gonadotropin action, opposite to the follicular development by down-regulating the expressions of estrogen biosynthetic enzymes. The cytokine effects on P450arom expression are mainly derived from a decrease in gonadotropin-induced cAMP production, while the inhibitory mechanisms on 17HSD type 1 expression involve distal sites from cAMP generation. The protein kinase C and tyrosine kinase pathways are likely not to be involved in the latter mechanisms.

17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases--their role in pathophysiology.

17 beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSDs) regulate the biological activity of sex steroid hormones in a variety of tissues by catalyzing the interconversions between highly active steroid hormones, e.g. estradiol and testosterone, and corresponding less active hormones, estrone and androstenedione. Epidemiological and endocrine evidence indicates that estrogens play a role in the etiology of breast cancer, while androgens are involved in mechanisms controlling the growth of normal and malignant prostatic cells. Using LNCaP prostate cancer cell lines, we have developed a cell model to study the progression of prostate cancer. In the model LNCaP cells are transformed in culture condition into more aggressive cells. Our data suggest that substantial changes in androgen and estrogen metabolism occur in the cells, leading to increased production of active estrogens during the process. In breast cancer, the reductive 17HSD type 1 activity is predominant in malignant cells, while the oxidative 17HSD type 2 mainly seems to be present in non-malignant breast epithelial cells. Deprivation of an estrogen response by using specific 17HSD type 1 inhibitors is a tempting approach in treating estrogen-dependent breast cancer. Our recent studies demonstrate that in addition to sex hormone target tissues, estrogens may be important in the development of cancer in some other tissues previously not considered to be estrogen target tissues, such as the gastrointestinal tract.

Ontogeny of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 mRNA expression in the developing mouse placenta and fetus.

17beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (17HSD type 2) catalyzes the inactivation of estradiol, testosterone and dihydrotestosterone into biologically less active 17-keto forms. Our recent Northern analysis indicated that the enzyme is expressed both in mouse placenta and fetus. The present data indicate that in the placenta the distribution of enzyme expression changes during pregnancy. In the choriovitelline placenta (day 8) 17HSD type 2 was expressed both in mural and polar giant cells. Later, on days 9-12.5, the mRNA was also detected in the junctional zone, and in late gestation (days 14.5-17.5), 17HSD type 2 mRNA was predominantly expressed only at the labyrinth region. In the fetus, 17HSD type 2 expression appears in the liver on day 11. At day 12 the expression was strongly increased in the liver, and at the same time moderate mRNA expression was also detected in the esophagus and intestine. In these tissues, high constitutive expression of 17HSD type 2 was then maintained throughout pregnancy. At later stages of development (days 15-16) the mRNA was, furthermore, detected in epithelial cells of the stomach, tongue, oropharynx and nasopharynx as well as in the kidney. We conclude that the expression pattern of 17HSD type 2 in the developing placenta and fetus suggests a role for the enzyme in maintaining a barrier to the transfer of active 17-hydroxy forms of sex steroids between the fetus and maternal circulation.

Role of 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in endocrine and intracrine estradiol biosynthesis.

Enzymes with 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17 beta-HSD) activity catalyse reactions between the low-active female sex steroid, estrone, and the more potent estradiol, for example. 17 beta-HSD activity is essential for glandular (endocrine) sex hormone biosynthesis, but it is also present in several extra-gonadal tissues. Hence, 17 beta-HSD enzymes also take part in local (intracrine) estradiol production in the target tissues of estrogen action. Four distinct 17 beta-HSD isozymes have been characterized so far, and the data strongly suggests that different 17 beta-HSD isozymes have distinct roles in endocrine and intracrine metabolism of sex steroids. Current data suggest that 17 beta-HSD type 1 is the principal isoenzyme involved in glandular estradiol production both in humans and rodents. During ovarian follicular development and luteinization, rat 17 beta-HSD type 1 is regulated by gonadotropins, and the effects of gonadotropins are modulated by steroid hormones and paracrine growth factors. Human 17 beta-HSD type 1 favors the reduction reaction, thereby converting estrone to estradiol both in vitro and in cultured cells. Hence, the enzymatic properties of the enzyme are also in line with its suggested role in estradiol biosynthesis. Interestingly, 17 beta-HSD type 1 is also expressed in certain target tissues of estrogen action such as normal and malignant human breast and endometrium. Hence, 17 beta-HSD type 1 could be one of the factors leading to a relatively high tissue/plasma ratio of estradiol in breast cancer tissues of postmenopausal women. We conclude that 17 beta-HSD type 1 has a central role in regulating the circulating estradiol concentration as well as its local production in estrogen target cells.

Immunohistochemical detection of human estrogen receptor with region D-specific antipeptide antibodies.

To study the possibility of using antipeptide antibodies for the immunohistochemical determination of human estrogen receptors (ER), three peptides corresponding to the putative major antigenic regions of the human ER (Met12-Leu26, or ERP1; Thr227-Gln267, or ERP2; Leu256-Gly275, or ERP3) were used to produce site-specific rabbit polyclonal antipeptide antisera. High titer antibodies were obtained against all the peptides used, as judged by time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay. The antibodies against region D (ERP3) specifically immunoprecipitated the ER proteins in vitro, as did the antiERP2 antibodies to a much smaller extent. With one of the region D-specific antibodies (antiERP3 Ab2) ER could also be immunohistochemically detected. When benign and malignant human breast and normal endometrial tissues were used, the immunohistochemical staining observed with these antipeptide antibodies correlated well with the staining obtained with an established method. Thus, the results reported here show that this part of region D in ER is a potential antigenic epitope for the production of site-specific antibodies against ER. Antipeptide antibodies produced against this region can be used to immunolocalize the ER in various normal and pathological human tissues.

17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases and cancers.

17 beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17HSDs) catalyze the interconversions between active 17 beta-hydroxysteroids and less-active 17-ketosteroids thereby affecting the availability of biologically active estrogens and androgens in a variety of tissues. The enzymes have different enzymatic properties and characteristic cell-specific expression patterns, suggesting differential physiological functions for the enzymes. Epidemiological and endocrine evidence indicate that estrogens play a key role in the etiology of breast cancer while androgens are involved in mechanisms controlling the growth of prostatic cells, both normal and malignant. Recently, we have developed, using LNCaP prostate cancer cell lines, a cell model to study the progression of prostate cancer. In the model LNCaP cells are transformed in culture condition to more aggressive cells, able to grow in suspension cultures. Our results suggest that substantial changes in androgen and estrogen metabolism occur in the cells during the process. These changes lead to increased production of active estrogens during transformation of the cells. Data from studies of breast cell lines and tissues suggest that the oxidative 17HSD type 2 may predominate in human non-malignant breast epithelial cells, while the reductive 17HSD type 1 activity prevails in malignant cells. Deprivation of an estrogen response by using specific 17HSD type 1 inhibitors is a tempting approach to treat estrogen-dependent breast cancer. Our recent studies demonstrate that in addition to sex hormone target tissues, estrogens may be important in the development of cancer in some other tissues previously not considered as estrogen target tissues such as colon. Our data show that the abundant expression of 17HSD type 2 present in normal colonic mucosa is significantly decreased during colon cancer development.