A prion-like domain in ELF3 functions as a thermosensor in Arabidopsis.

Temperature controls plant growth and development, and climate change has already altered the phenology of wild plants and crops1. However, the mechanisms by which plants sense temperature are not well understood. The evening complex is a major signalling hub and a core component of the plant circadian clock2,3. The evening complex acts as a temperature-responsive transcriptional repressor, providing rhythmicity and temperature responsiveness to growth through unknown mechanisms2,4-6. The evening complex consists of EARLY FLOWERING 3 (ELF3)4,7, a large scaffold protein and key component of temperature sensing; ELF4, a small α-helical protein; and LUX ARRYTHMO (LUX), a DNA-binding protein required to recruit the evening complex to transcriptional targets. ELF3 contains a polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat8-10, embedded within a predicted prion domain (PrD). Here we find that the length of the polyQ repeat correlates with thermal responsiveness. We show that ELF3 proteins in plants from hotter climates, with no detectable PrD, are active at high temperatures, and lack thermal responsiveness. The temperature sensitivity of ELF3 is also modulated by the levels of ELF4, indicating that ELF4 can stabilize the function of ELF3. In both Arabidopsis and a heterologous system, ELF3 fused with green fluorescent protein forms speckles within minutes in response to higher temperatures, in a PrD-dependent manner. A purified fragment encompassing the ELF3 PrD reversibly forms liquid droplets in response to increasing temperatures in vitro, indicating that these properties reflect a direct biophysical response conferred by the PrD. The ability of temperature to rapidly shift ELF3 between active and inactive states via phase transition represents a previously unknown thermosensory mechanism.

The evening complex integrates photoperiod signals to control flowering in rice.

Plants use photoperiodism to activate flowering in response to a particular daylength. In rice, flowering is accelerated in short-day conditions, and even a brief exposure to light during the dark period (night-break) is sufficient to delay flowering. Although many of the genes involved in controlling flowering in rice have been uncovered, how the long- and short-day flowering pathways are integrated, and the mechanism of photoperiod perception is not understood. While many of the signaling components controlling photoperiod-activated flowering are conserved between Arabidopsis and rice, flowering in these two systems is activated by opposite photoperiods. Here we establish that photoperiodism in rice is controlled by the evening complex (EC). We show that mutants in the EC genes LUX ARRYTHMO (LUX) and EARLY FLOWERING3 (ELF3) paralogs abolish rice flowering. We also show that the EC directly binds and suppresses the expression of flowering repressors, including PRR37 and Ghd7. We further demonstrate that light acts via phyB to cause a rapid and sustained posttranslational modification of ELF3-1. Our results suggest a mechanism by which the EC is able to control both long- and short-day flowering pathways.

Warm Temperature Promotes Shoot Regeneration in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Many plants are able to regenerate upon cutting, and this process can be enhanced in vitro by incubating explants on hormone-supplemented media. While such protocols have been used for decades, little is known about the molecular details of how incubation conditions influence their efficiency. In this study, we find that warm temperature promotes both callus formation and shoot regeneration in Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that such an increase in shoot regenerative capacity at higher temperatures correlates with the enhanced expression of several regeneration-associated genes, such as CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON 1 (CUC1) encoding a transcription factor involved in shoot meristem formation and YUCCAs (YUCs) encoding auxin biosynthesis enzymes. ChIP-sequencing analyses further reveal that histone variant H2A.Z is enriched on these loci at 17°C, while its occupancy is reduced by an increase in ambient temperature to 27°C. Moreover, we provide genetic evidence to demonstrate that H2A.Z acts as a repressor of de novo shoot organogenesis since H2A.Z-depleted mutants display enhanced shoot regeneration. This study thus uncovers a new chromatin-based mechanism that influences hormone-induced regeneration and additionally highlights incubation temperature as a key parameter for optimizing in vitro tissue culture.

Genome-Wide Transcription Factor Binding in Leaves from C3 and C4 Grasses.

The majority of plants use C3 photosynthesis, but over 60 independent lineages of angiosperms have evolved the C4 pathway. In most C4 species, photosynthesis gene expression is compartmented between mesophyll and bundle-sheath cells. We performed DNaseI sequencing to identify genome-wide profiles of transcription factor binding in leaves of the C4 grasses Zea mays, Sorghum bicolor, and Setaria italica as well as C3 Brachypodium distachyon In C4 species, while bundle-sheath strands and whole leaves shared similarity in the broad regions of DNA accessible to transcription factors, the short sequences bound varied. Transcription factor binding was prevalent in gene bodies as well as promoters, and many of these sites could represent duons that influence gene regulation in addition to amino acid sequence. Although globally there was little correlation between any individual DNaseI footprint and cell-specific gene expression, within individual species transcription factor binding to the same motifs in multiple genes provided evidence for shared mechanisms governing C4 photosynthesis gene expression. Furthermore, interspecific comparisons identified a small number of highly conserved transcription factor binding sites associated with leaves from species that diverged around 60 million years ago. These data therefore provide insight into the architecture associated with C4 photosynthesis gene expression in particular and characteristics of transcription factor binding in cereal crops in general.

The Evening Complex Establishes Repressive Chromatin Domains Via H2A.Z Deposition.

The Evening Complex (EC) is a core component of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) circadian clock, which represses target gene expression at the end of the day and integrates temperature information to coordinate environmental and endogenous signals. Here we show that the EC induces repressive chromatin structure to regulate the evening transcriptome. The EC component ELF3 directly interacts with a protein from the SWI2/SNF2-RELATED (SWR1) complex to control deposition of H2A.Z-nucleosomes at the EC target genes. SWR1 components display circadian oscillation in gene expression with a peak at dusk. In turn, SWR1 is required for the circadian clockwork, as defects in SWR1 activity alter morning-expressed genes. The EC-SWR1 complex binds to the loci of the core clock genes PSEUDO-RESPONSE REGULATOR7 (PRR7) and PRR9 and catalyzes deposition of nucleosomes containing the histone variant H2A.Z coincident with the repression of these genes at dusk. This provides a mechanism by which the circadian clock temporally establishes repressive chromatin domains to shape oscillatory gene expression around dusk.

The G-Box Transcriptional Regulatory Code in Arabidopsis.

Plants have significantly more transcription factor (TF) families than animals and fungi, and plant TF families tend to contain more genes; these expansions are linked to adaptation to environmental stressors. Many TF family members bind to similar or identical sequence motifs, such as G-boxes (CACGTG), so it is difficult to predict regulatory relationships. We determined that the flanking sequences near G-boxes help determine in vitro specificity but that this is insufficient to predict the transcription pattern of genes near G-boxes. Therefore, we constructed a gene regulatory network that identifies the set of bZIPs and bHLHs that are most predictive of the expression of genes downstream of perfect G-boxes. This network accurately predicts transcriptional patterns and reconstructs known regulatory subnetworks. Finally, we present Ara-BOX-cis (araboxcis.org), a Web site that provides interactive visualizations of the G-box regulatory network, a useful resource for generating predictions for gene regulatory relations.

Transcription factor PIF4 controls the thermosensory activation of flowering.

Plant growth and development are strongly affected by small differences in temperature. Current climate change has already altered global plant phenology and distribution, and projected increases in temperature pose a significant challenge to agriculture. Despite the important role of temperature on plant development, the underlying pathways are unknown. It has previously been shown that thermal acceleration of flowering is dependent on the florigen, FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). How this occurs is, however, not understood, because the major pathway known to upregulate FT, the photoperiod pathway, is not required for thermal acceleration of flowering. Here we demonstrate a direct mechanism by which increasing temperature causes the bHLH transcription factor PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR4 (PIF4) to activate FT. Our findings provide a new understanding of how plants control their timing of reproduction in response to temperature. Flowering time is an important trait in crops as well as affecting the life cycles of pollinator species. A molecular understanding of how temperature affects flowering will be important for mitigating the effects of climate change.

Interlocking feedback loops govern the dynamic behavior of the floral transition in Arabidopsis.

During flowering, primordia on the flanks of the shoot apical meristem are specified to form flowers instead of leaves. Like many plants, Arabidopsis thaliana integrates environmental and endogenous signals to control the timing of reproduction. To study the underlying regulatory logic of the floral transition, we used a combination of modeling and experiments to define a core gene regulatory network. We show that FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and TERMINAL FLOWER1 (TFL1) act through FD and FD PARALOG to regulate the transition. The major floral meristem identity gene LEAFY (LFY) directly activates FD, creating a positive feedback loop. This network predicts flowering behavior for different genotypes and displays key properties of the floral transition, such as signal integration and irreversibility. Furthermore, modeling suggests that the control of TFL1 is important to flexibly counterbalance incoming FT signals, allowing a pool of undifferentiated cells to be maintained despite strong differentiation signals in nearby cells. This regulatory system requires TFL1 expression to rise in proportion to the strength of the floral inductive signal. In this network, low initial levels of LFY or TFL1 expression are sufficient to tip the system into either a stable flowering or vegetative state upon floral induction.

Visual attention to meaningful stimuli by 1- to 3-year olds: implications for the measurement of memory.

The visual recognition memory (VRM) paradigm has been widely used to measure memory during infancy and early childhood; it has also been used to study memory in human and nonhuman adults. Typically, participants are familiarized with stimuli that have no special significance to them. Under these conditions, greater attention to the novel stimulus during the test (i.e., novelty preference) is used as the primary index of memory. Here, we took a novel approach to the VRM paradigm and tested 1-, 2-, and 3-year olds using photos of meaningful stimuli that were drawn from the participants' own environment (e.g., photos of their mother, father, siblings, house). We also compared their performance to that of participants of the same age who were tested in an explicit pointing version of the VRM task. Two- and 3-year olds exhibited a strong familiarity preference for some, but not all, of the meaningful stimuli; 1-year olds did not. At no age did participants exhibit the kind of novelty preference that is commonly used to define memory in the VRM task. Furthermore, when compared to pointing, looking measures provided a rough approximation of recognition memory, but in some instances, the looking measure underestimated retention. The use of meaningful stimuli raise important questions about the way in which visual attention is interpreted in the VRM paradigm, and may provide new opportunities to measure memory during infancy and early childhood.

Phytochromes transmit photoperiod information via the evening complex in Brachypodium.

BACKGROUND: Daylength is a key seasonal cue for animals and plants. In cereals, photoperiodic responses are a major adaptive trait, and alleles of clock genes such as PHOTOPERIOD1 (PPD1) and EARLY FLOWERING3 (ELF3) have been selected for in adapting barley and wheat to northern latitudes. How monocot plants sense photoperiod and integrate this information into growth and development is not well understood. RESULTS: We find that phytochrome C (PHYC) is essential for flowering in Brachypodium distachyon. Conversely, ELF3 acts as a floral repressor and elf3 mutants display a constitutive long day phenotype and transcriptome. We find that ELF3 and PHYC occur in a common complex. ELF3 associates with the promoters of a number of conserved regulators of flowering, including PPD1 and VRN1. Consistent with observations in barley, we are able to show that PPD1 overexpression accelerates flowering in short days and is necessary for rapid flowering in response to long days. PHYC is in the active Pfr state at the end of the day, but we observe it undergoes dark reversion over the course of the night. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that PHYC acts as a molecular timer and communicates information on night-length to the circadian clock via ELF3.

An early-morning gene network controlled by phytochromes and cryptochromes regulates photomorphogenesis pathways in Arabidopsis.

Light perception at dawn plays a key role in coordinating multiple molecular processes and in entraining the plant circadian clock. The Arabidopsis mutant lacking the main photoreceptors, however, still shows clock entrainment, indicating that the integration of light into the morning transcriptome is not well understood. In this study, we performed a high-resolution RNA-sequencing time-series experiment, sampling every 2 min beginning at dawn. In parallel experiments, we perturbed temperature, the circadian clock, photoreceptor signaling, and chloroplast-derived light signaling. We used these data to infer a gene network that describes the gene expression dynamics after light stimulus in the morning, and then validated key edges. By sampling time points at high density, we are able to identify three light- and temperature-sensitive bursts of transcription factor activity, one of which lasts for only about 8 min. Phytochrome and cryptochrome mutants cause a delay in the transcriptional bursts at dawn, and completely remove a burst of expression in key photomorphogenesis genes (HY5 and BBX family). Our complete network is available online (http://www-users.york.ac.uk/∼de656/dawnBurst/dawnBurst.html). Taken together, our results show that phytochrome and cryptochrome signaling is required for fine-tuning the dawn transcriptional response to light, but separate pathways can robustly activate much of the program in their absence.

FT protein acts as a long-range signal in Arabidopsis.

Plants are sessile organisms and must respond to changes in environmental conditions. Flowering time is a key developmental switch that is affected by both day length and temperature. Environmental cues are sensed by the leaves while the responses occur at the apex, requiring long-range communication within the plant. For many years it has been known that leaves exposed to light can trigger the floral transition of a darkened shoot, and grafting experiments demonstrated that the floral stimulus travels long distances. This mobile signal was later termed "florigen," but its nature has been unclear. The gene FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) is a major output of both the photoperiod and the vernalization pathways controlling the floral transition. FT protein acts at the shoot apex of the plant in concert with a transcription factor, FLOWERING LOCUS D (FD). A fundamental question is how FT transcription in the leaves leads to active FT protein at the apex. We have uncoupled FT protein movement from its biological function to show that FT protein is the mobile signal that travels from the leaves to the apex. To our knowledge, FT is the only known protein that serves as a long-range developmental signal in plants.

An RNA thermoswitch regulates daytime growth in Arabidopsis.

Temperature is a major environmental cue affecting plant growth and development. Plants often experience higher temperatures in the context of a 24 h day-night cycle, with temperatures peaking in the middle of the day. Here, we find that the transcript encoding the bHLH transcription factor PIF7 undergoes a direct increase in translation in response to warmer temperature. Diurnal expression of PIF7 transcript gates this response, allowing PIF7 protein to quickly accumulate in response to warm daytime temperature. Enhanced PIF7 protein levels directly activate the thermomorphogenesis pathway by inducing the transcription of key genes such as the auxin biosynthetic gene YUCCA8, and are necessary for thermomorphogenesis to occur under warm cycling daytime temperatures. The temperature-dependent translational enhancement of PIF7 messenger RNA is mediated by the formation of an RNA hairpin within its 5' untranslated region, which adopts an alternative conformation at higher temperature, leading to increased protein synthesis. We identified similar hairpin sequences that control translation in additional transcripts including WRKY22 and the key heat shock regulator HSFA2, suggesting that this is a conserved mechanism enabling plants to respond and adapt rapidly to high temperatures.

A CRISPR/Cas9-Based Mutagenesis Protocol for Brachypodium distachyon and Its Allopolyploid Relative, Brachypodium hybridum.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system enables precise genome editing and is a useful tool for functional genomic studies. Here we report a detailed protocol for targeted genome editing in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon and its allotetraploid relative B. hybridum, describing gRNA design, a transient protoplast assay to test gRNA efficiency, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and the selection and analysis of regenerated plants. In B. distachyon, we targeted the gene encoding phytoene desaturase (PDS), which is a crucial enzyme in the chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway. The albino phenotype of mutants obtained confirmed the effectiveness of the protocol for functional gene analysis. Additionally, we targeted two genes related to cell wall maintenance, encoding a fasciclin-like arabinogalactan protein (FLA) and a pectin methylesterase (PME), also in B. distachyon. Two genes encoding cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKG1 and CDKG2), which may be involved in DNA recombination were targeted in both B. distachyon and B. hybridum. Cas9 activity induces mainly insertions or deletions, resulting in frameshift mutations that, may lead to premature stop codons. Because of the close phylogenetic relationship between Brachypodium species and key temperate cereals and forage grasses, this protocol should be easily adapted to target genes underpinning agronomically important traits.

AT-Hook Transcription Factors Restrict Petiole Growth by Antagonizing PIFs.

Upon detecting abiotic or biotic stress, plants generally reduce their growth, enabling resources to be conserved and diverted to stress response mechanisms. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the AT-hook motif nuclear-localized (AHL) transcription factor family has been implicated in restricting rosette growth in response to stress. However, the mechanism by which AHLs repress growth in rosettes is unknown. In this study, we establish that SUPPRESSOR OF PHYTOCHROME B4-#3 (SOB3) and other AHLs restrict petiole elongation by antagonizing the growth-promoting PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs). Our data show that high levels of SOB3 expression lead to a short-petiole phenotype similar to that conferred by removal of PIF4. Conversely, the dominant-negative sob3-6 mutant has long petioles, a phenotype which is PIF-dependent. We further show that AHLs repress the expression of many PIF-activated genes, several of which are involved in hormone-mediated promotion of growth. Additionally, a subset of PIF-activated, AHL-repressed genes are directly bound by both SOB3 and PIFs. Finally, SOB3 reduces binding of PIF4 to shared target loci. Collectively, our results demonstrate that AHLs repress petiole growth by antagonizing PIF-mediated transcriptional activation of genes associated with growth and hormone pathways. By elucidating a mechanism via which the stress-responsive AHL transcription factor family influences growth in petioles, this study identifies a key step in the gene regulatory network controlling leaf growth in response to the environment.

LHY2 Integrates Night-Length Information to Determine Timing of Poplar Photoperiodic Growth.

Day length is a key indicator of seasonal information that determines major patterns of behavior in plants and animals. Photoperiodism has been described in plants for about 100 years, but the underlying molecular mechanisms of day length perception and signal transduction in many systems are not well understood. In trees, photoperiod perception plays a major role in growth cessation during the autumn as well as activating the resumption of shoot growth in the spring, both processes controlled by FLOWERING LOCUS T2 (FT2) expression levels and critical for the survival of perennial plants over winter [1-4]. It has been shown that the conserved role of poplar orthologs to Arabidopsis CONSTANS (CO) directly activates FT2 expression [1, 5]. Overexpression of poplar CO is, however, not sufficient to sustain FT2 expression under short days [5], pointing to the presence of an additional short-day-dependent FT2 repression pathway in poplar. We find that night length information is transmitted via the expression level of a poplar clock gene, LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 2 (LHY2), which controls FT2 expression. Repression of FT2 is a function of the night extension and LHY2 expression level. We show that LHY2 is necessary and sufficient to activate night length repressive signaling. We propose that the photoperiodic control of shoot growth in poplar involves a balance between FT2 activating and repressing pathways. Our results show that poplar relies on night length measurement to determine photoperiodism through interaction between light signaling pathways and the circadian clock.

Chloroplast Signaling Gates Thermotolerance in Arabidopsis.

Temperature is a key environmental variable influencing plant growth and survival. Protection against high temperature stress in eukaryotes is coordinated by heat shock factors (HSFs), transcription factors that activate the expression of protective chaperones such as HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 70 (HSP70); however, the pathway by which temperature is sensed and integrated with other environmental signals into adaptive responses is not well understood. Plants are exposed to considerable diurnal variation in temperature, and we have found that there is diurnal variation in thermotolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana, with maximal thermotolerance coinciding with higher HSP70 expression during the day. In a forward genetic screen, we identified a key role for the chloroplast in controlling this response, suggesting that light-induced chloroplast signaling plays a key role. Consistent with this, we are able to globally activate binding of HSFA1a to its targets by altering redox status in planta independently of a heat shock.

Transcriptional Regulation of the Ambient Temperature Response by H2A.Z Nucleosomes and HSF1 Transcription Factors in Arabidopsis.

Temperature influences the distribution, range, and phenology of plants. The key transcriptional activators of heat shock response in eukaryotes, the heat shock factors (HSFs), have undergone large-scale gene amplification in plants. While HSFs are central in heat stress responses, their role in the response to ambient temperature changes is less well understood. We show here that the warm ambient temperature transcriptome is dependent upon the HSFA1 clade of Arabidopsis HSFs, which cause a rapid and dynamic eviction of H2A.Z nucleosomes at target genes. A transcriptional cascade results in the activation of multiple downstream stress-responsive transcription factors, triggering large-scale changes to the transcriptome in response to elevated temperature. H2A.Z nucleosomes are enriched at temperature-responsive genes at non-inducible temperature, and thus likely confer inducibility of gene expression and higher responsive dynamics. We propose that the antagonistic effects of H2A.Z and HSF1 provide a mechanism to activate gene expression rapidly and precisely in response to temperature, while preventing leaky transcription in the absence of an activation signal.

The evening complex coordinates environmental and endogenous signals in Arabidopsis.

Plants maximize their fitness by adjusting their growth and development in response to signals such as light and temperature. The circadian clock provides a mechanism for plants to anticipate events such as sunrise and adjust their transcriptional programmes. However, the underlying mechanisms by which plants coordinate environmental signals with endogenous pathways are not fully understood. Using RNA-sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing experiments, we show that the evening complex (EC) of the circadian clock plays a major role in directly coordinating the expression of hundreds of key regulators of photosynthesis, the circadian clock, phytohormone signalling, growth and response to the environment. We find that the ability of the EC to bind targets genome-wide depends on temperature. In addition, co-occurrence of phytochrome B (phyB) at multiple sites where the EC is bound provides a mechanism for integrating environmental information. Hence, our results show that the EC plays a central role in coordinating endogenous and environmental signals in Arabidopsis.

Phytochromes function as thermosensors in Arabidopsis.

Plants are responsive to temperature, and some species can distinguish differences of 1°C. In Arabidopsis, warmer temperature accelerates flowering and increases elongation growth (thermomorphogenesis). However, the mechanisms of temperature perception are largely unknown. We describe a major thermosensory role for the phytochromes (red light receptors) during the night. Phytochrome null plants display a constitutive warm-temperature response, and consistent with this, we show in this background that the warm-temperature transcriptome becomes derepressed at low temperatures. We found that phytochrome B (phyB) directly associates with the promoters of key target genes in a temperature-dependent manner. The rate of phyB inactivation is proportional to temperature in the dark, enabling phytochromes to function as thermal timers that integrate temperature information over the course of the night.