Creep and fatigue behavior of a novel 2-component paste-like formulation of acrylic bone cements.

The fatigue and creep performance of two novel acrylic bone cement formulations (one bone cement without antibiotics, one with antibiotics) was compared to the performance of clinically used bone cements (Osteopal V, Palacos R, Simplex P, SmartSet GHV, Palacos R+G and CMW1 with Gentamicin). The preparation of the novel bone cement formulations involves the mixing of two paste-like substances in a static mixer integrated into the cartridge which is used to apply the bone cement. The fatigue performance of the two novel bone cement formulations is comparable to the performance of the reference bone cements. The creep compliance of the bone cements is significantly influenced by the effects of physical ageing. The model parameters of Struik's creep law are used to compare the creep behavior of different bone cements. The novel 2-component paste-like bone cement formulations are in the group of bone cements which exhibit a higher creep resistance.

Fracture toughness and crack resistance curves of acrylic bone cements.

The fracture toughness KIc of 11 clinically used acrylic bone cements was studied in air at room temperature with single edge V-notched beam specimens. By driving the crack step-wise through the specimens, crack resistance curves ("R-curves") were recorded. One group of bone cements showed an increase of the fracture toughness with increasing crack length (including CMW1+G and several Palacos bone cements) whereas another group (including Simplex, SmartSet, Copal and some Palacos bone cements) did not exhibit an R-curve behavior. The plateau values for KIc ranged from 0.93 MPa√m (Simplex P) to 1.98 MPa√m (Palacos R+G). The observation of the crack growth with an optical microscope revealed some mechanisms influencing the crack growth like the formation of microcracks in the extended damage zone of the crack tip, the attraction of the crack by inclusions or the shielding of the crack tip by bridges in the wake of the crack. Furthermore, bone cements could be distinguished by the pattern of the path the crack followed during propagation. The crack pattern of CMW1+G provides a possible explanation of the distinct R-curve behavior of this cement.

Kinetic model for the coupled volumetric and thermal behavior of dental composites.

OBJECTIVE: The volume and thermal behavior of dental composites during the curing reaction was analyzed for different modes of initiation using a combination of experiments and models for polymerization kinetics. METHODS: The volume behavior of four dental composites (Venus, Tetric Ceram, Ceram X mono and Filtek Supreme) was studied with buoyancy measurements during the initiation and dark phase of the curing process. The volume and temperature development of the composites were described for different intensities of the photo-initiation with a mathematical model based on the "mixed termination model" for the polymerization reaction. RESULTS: A good agreement between volumetric data and the model function was achieved. A non-linear regression of the experimental data with the model yields results for the adjustable parameters describing the kinetics of the polymerization reaction which are typical for comparable polymerization reactions. Using kinetic models of the polymerization reaction for analyzing the volume behavior of radically crosslinking curing dental composites, thermal and polymerization-specific components of the overall shrinkage of the composites can be distinguished and compared for different materials. SIGNIFICANCE: With the developed methodology, a more detailed insight into the curing process can be achieved which can contribute to the understanding of the build-up of internal stresses in dental fillings. These stresses can negatively affect the marginal integrity of the filling, which is a relevant precondition of long-term chemical, biological and mechanical stability.

Optimized vascular network by stereolithography for tissue engineered skin.

This paper demonstrates the essential and efficient methods to design, and fabricate optimal vascular network for tissue engineering structures based on their physiological conditions. Comprehensive physiological requirements in both micro and macro scales were considered in developing the optimisation design for complex vascular vessels. The optimised design was then manufactured by stereolithography process using materials that are biocompatible, elastic and surface bio-coatable. The materials are self-developed photocurable resin consist of BPA-ethoxylated-diacrylate, lauryl acrylate and isobornylacrylate with Irgacure® 184, the photoinitiator. The optimised vascular vessel offers many advantages: 1) it provides the maximum nutrient supply; 2) it minimises the recirculation areas and 3) it allows the wall shear stress on the vessel in a healthy range. The stereolithography manufactured vascular vessels were then embedded in the hydrogel seeded with cells. The results of in vitro studies show that the optimised vascular network has the lowest cell death rate compared with a pure hydrogel scaffold and a hydrogel scaffold embedded within a single tube in day seven. Consequently, these design and manufacture routes were shown to be viable for exploring and developing a high range complex and specialised artificial vascular networks.

Customized mandibular reconstruction plates improve mechanical performance in a mandibular reconstruction model.

The purpose of this paper was to analyze the biomechanical performance of customized mandibular reconstruction plates with optimized strength. The best locations for increasing bar widths were determined with a sensitivity analysis. Standard and customized plates were mounted on mandible models and mechanically tested. Maximum stress in the plate could be reduced from 573 to 393 MPa (-31%) by increasing bar widths. The median fatigue limit was significantly greater (p < 0.001) for customized plates (650 ± 27 N) than for standard plates (475 ± 27 N). Increasing bar widths at case-specific locations was an effective strategy for increasing plate fatigue performance.

Laser-structured bacterial nanocellulose hydrogels support ingrowth and differentiation of chondrocytes and show potential as cartilage implants.

The small size and heterogeneity of the pores in bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) hydrogels limit the ingrowth of cells and their use as tissue-engineered implant materials. The use of placeholders during BNC biosynthesis or post-processing steps such as (touch-free) laser perforation can overcome this limitation. Since three-dimensionally arranged channels may be required for homogeneous and functional seeding, three-dimensional (3-D) laser perforation of never-dried BNC hydrogels was performed. Never-dried BNC hydrogels were produced in different shapes by: (i) the cultivation of Gluconacetobacter xylinus (DSM 14666; synonym Komagataeibacter xylinus) in nutrient medium; (ii) the removal of bacterial residues/media components (0.1M NaOH; 30 min; 100 °C) and repeated washing (deionized water; pH 5.8); (iii) the unidirectional or 3-D laser perforation and cutting (pulsed CO2 Rofin SC × 10 laser; 220 µm channel diameter); and (iv) the final autoclaving (2M NaOH; 121 °C; 20 min) and washing (pyrogen-free water). In comparison to unmodified BNC, unidirectionally perforated--and particularly 3-D-perforated - BNC allowed ingrowth into and movement of vital bovine/human chondrocytes throughout the BNC nanofiber network. Laser perforation caused limited structural modifications (i.e. fiber or globular aggregates), but no chemical modifications, as indicated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron scattering and viability tests. Pre-cultured human chondrocytes seeding the surface/channels of laser-perforated BNC expressed cartilage-specific matrix products, indicating chondrocyte differentiation. 3-D-perforated BNC showed compressive strength comparable to that of unmodified samples. Unidirectionally or 3-D-perforated BNC shows high biocompatibility and provides short diffusion distances for nutrients and extracellular matrix components. Also, the resulting channels support migration into the BNC, matrix production and phenotypic stabilization of chondrocytes. It may thus be suitable for in vivo application, e.g. as a cartilage replacement material.

Evaluation of the Fatigue Performance and Degradability of Resorbable PLDLLA-TMC Osteofixations.

The fatigue performance of explanted in-situ degraded osteofixations/osteosyntheses, fabricated from poly (70L-lactide-co-24DL-lactide-6-trimethylane-carbonate or PLDLLA-TMC) copolymer was compared to that of virgin products. The fatigue test was performed on 21 explants retrieved from 12 women and 6 men; 16-46 years by a custom-designed three-point bend apparatus using a staircase method and a specified failure criterion (an increase of the deflection of the specimen > 1 mm) with run-out designated as "no failure" after 150,000 loading cycles. While all the virgin products showed run-out at 38N, all of the specimens fabricated from explants failed at this load level. For the explant specimens, although there was a trend of decreased failure load with increased in-situ time, this decrease was pronounced after 4 months in-situ, however, not yet statistically significant, while a 6-month in-situ explant had significantly less failure load. Three and four month in-situ explants had highly significant differences in failure load between measurements close and distant to the osteotomy line: p=0.0017 (the region of maximum load in-situ). In the virgin products, there were only traces of melt joining and cooling, left from a stage in the manufacturing process. For the implants retrieved after 4.5 months in-situ, the fracture surfaces showed signs of degradation of the implants, possibly caused by hydrolysis, and for those retrieved after 9 months in-situ, there were cracks and pores. Thus, the morphological results are consistent with those obtained in the fatigue test. The present results suggest that resorbable osteofixations fabricated from PLDLLA-TMC are stable enough to allow loading of the healing bone and degrade reliably.

A material model for internal stress of dental composites caused by the curing process.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the build-up of internal stresses in four different dental composites (Venus, Tetric Ceram, Ceram X mono and Filtek Supreme) during the curing reaction, based on the results of a former paper on polymerization kinetics, and to characterize the developing mechanical behavior for different modes of activation using experimental methods and simulation tools. METHODS: A four-parameter viscoelastic model combined with a curing model and a kinetic model was developed to simulate the mechanical behavior in three dimensions using the finite element software ABAQUS. In order to study the influence of slow polymerization behavior on the mechanical properties, the length of the activation period was doubled at half intensity of the curing light. RESULTS: Using a model which describes the complex interplay of stiffness, flowability, curing speed and activation intensity during the curing process gives deeper insight into the spatial and temporal build-up of stresses. An advantageous reaction kinetic or a lower stiffness can compensate for the effect of a higher polymerization shrinkage on the resulting peak stress. The evolution of stress is not directly proportional to the level of shrinkage of the composites. SIGNIFICANCE: A material model which includes the developing mechanical characteristics of a curing dental composite can be used to develop and optimize dental materials and to assess the effect of different treatment strategies (i.e. mode of photo-polymerization, filling geometries, interfacial strength).

Physical aging and the creep behavior of acrylic bone cements.

The creep deformation of two acrylic bone cements, Palacos R+G and SmartSet GHV, was investigated for different physical aging times ranging from 45 min to 2 (1/2) years. The experiments were carried out in a three-point-bending set-up in 37 degrees C Ringer's solution applying 10 MPa or 25 MPa creep loads. Both bone cements exhibit a significant decrease of their creep compliance with increasing physical aging time. The experimental data were analyzed with a creep law discussed in the context of physical aging by Struik, and a modified Burgers' model which can be used to separate the strain response of the bone cements into an elastic, a visco-elastic and a creep component. The creep behavior of the bone cements could be described essentially with only one parameter of Struik's creep law. The analysis with the modified Burgers' model showed that physical aging influences all model parameters which are directly related to the mobility of the polymer chains. The effect of physical aging should be taken into account particularly if the mechanical performance of bone cements shortly after curing is investigated.