In vivo evaluation of a novel 18F-labeled PET radioligand for translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) in monkey brain.

PURPOSE: [18F]SF51 was previously found to have high binding affinity and selectivity for 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO) in mouse brain. This study sought to assess the ability of [18F]SF51 to quantify TSPO in rhesus monkey brain. METHODS: Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging was performed in monkey brain (n = 3) at baseline and after pre-blockade with the TSPO ligands PK11195 and PBR28. TSPO binding was calculated as total distribution volume corrected for free parent fraction in plasma (VT/fP) using a two-tissue compartment model. Receptor occupancy and nondisplaceable uptake were determined via Lassen plot. Binding potential (BPND) was calculated as the ratio of specific binding to nondisplaceable uptake. Time stability of VT was used as an indirect probe to detect radiometabolite accumulation in the brain. In vivo and ex vivo experiments were performed in mice to determine the distribution of the radioligand. RESULTS: After [18F]SF51 injection, the concentration of brain radioactivity peaked at 2.0 standardized uptake value (SUV) at ~ 10 min and declined to 30% of the peak at 180 min. VT/fP at baseline was generally high (203 ± 15 mL· cm-3) and decreased by ~ 90% after blockade with PK11195. BPND of the whole brain was 7.6 ± 4.3. VT values reached levels similar to terminal 180-min values by 100 min and remained relatively stable thereafter with excellent identifiability (standard errors < 5%), suggesting that no significant radiometabolites accumulated in the brain. Ex vivo experiments in mouse brain showed that 96% of radioactivity was parent. No significant uptake was observed in the skull, suggesting a lack of defluorination in vivo. CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate that [18F]SF51 is an excellent radioligand that can quantify TSPO with a good ratio of specific to nondisplaceable uptake and has minimal radiometabolite accumulation in brain. Collectively, the results suggest that [18F]SF51 warrants further evaluation in humans.

Robust Quantification of Phosphodiesterase-4D in Monkey Brain with PET and 11C-Labeled Radioligands That Avoid Radiometabolite Contamination.

Phosphodiesterase-4D (PDE4D) has emerged as a significant target for treating neuropsychiatric disorders, but no PET radioligand currently exists for robustly quantifying human brain PDE4D to assist biomedical research and drug discovery. A prior candidate PDE4D PET radioligand, namely [11C]T1650, failed in humans because of poor time stability of brain PDE4D-specific signal (indexed by total volume of distribution), likely due to radiometabolites accumulating in brain. Its nitro group was considered to be a source of the brain radiometabolites. Methods: We selected 5 high-affinity and selective PDE4D inhibitors, absent of a nitro group, from our prior structure-activity relationship study for evaluation as PET radioligands. Results: All 5 radioligands were labeled with 11C (half-time, 20.4 min) in useful yields and with high molar activity. All displayed sizable PDE4D-specific signals in rhesus monkey brain. Notably, [11C]JMJ-81 and [11C]JMJ-129 exhibited excellent time stability of signal (total volume of distribution). Furthermore, as an example, [11C]JMJ-81 was found to be free of radiometabolites in ex vivo monkey brain, affirming that this radioligand can provide robust quantification of brain PDE4D with PET. Conclusion: Given their high similarity in structures and metabolic profiles, both [11C]JMJ-81 and [11C]JMJ-129 warrant further evaluation in human subjects. [11C]JMJ-129 shows a higher PDE4D specific-to-nonspecific binding ratio and will be the first to be evaluated.

Synthesis and preclinical evaluation of [11C]uPSEM792 for PSAM4-GlyR based chemogenetics.

Chemogenetic tools are designed to control neuronal signaling. These tools have the potential to contribute to the understanding of neuropsychiatric disorders and to the development of new treatments. One such chemogenetic technology comprises modified Pharmacologically Selective Actuator Modules (PSAMs) paired with Pharmacologically Selective Effector Molecules (PSEMs). PSAMs are receptors with ligand-binding domains that have been modified to interact only with a specific small-molecule agonist, designated a PSEM. PSAM4 is a triple mutant PSAM derived from the α7 nicotinic receptor (α7L131G,Q139L,Y217F). Although having no constitutive activity as a ligand-gated ion channel, PSAM4 has been coupled to the serotonin 5-HT3 receptor (5-HT3R) and to the glycine receptor (GlyR). Treatment with the partner PSEM to activate PSAM4-5-HT3 or PSAM4-GlyR, causes neuronal activation or silencing, respectively. A suitably designed radioligand may enable selective visualization of the expression and location of PSAMs with positron emission tomography (PET). Here, we evaluated uPSEM792, an ultrapotent PSEM for PSAM4-GlyR, as a possible lead for PET radioligand development. We labeled uPSEM792 with the positron-emitter, carbon-11 (t1/2 = 20.4 min), in high radiochemical yield by treating a protected precursor with [11C]iodomethane followed by base deprotection. PET experiments with [11C]uPSEM792 in rodents and in a monkey transduced with PSAM4-GlyR showed low peak radioactivity uptake in brain. This low uptake was probably due to high polarity of the radioligand, as evidenced by physicochemical measurements, and to the vulnerability of the radioligand to efflux transport at the blood-brain barrier. These findings can inform the design of a more effective PSAM4 based PET radioligand, based on the uPSEM792 chemotype.

Discovery of a High-Affinity Fluoromethyl Analog of [11C]5-Cyano-N-(4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(piperidin-1-yl)phenyl)furan-2-carboxamide ([11C]CPPC) and Their Comparison in Mouse and Monkey as Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 Receptor Positron Emission Tomography Radioligands.

[11C]CPPC has been advocated as a radioligand for colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) with the potential for imaging neuroinflammation in human subjects with positron emission tomography (PET). This study sought to prepare fluoro analogs of CPPC with higher affinity to provide the potential for labeling with longer-lived fluorine-18 (t 1/2 = 109.8 min) and for delivery of higher CSF1R-specific PET signal in vivo. Seven fluorine-containing analogs of CPPC were prepared and four were found to have high inhibitory potency (IC50 in low to sub-nM range) and selectivity at CSF1R comparable with CPPC itself. One of these, a 4-fluoromethyl analog (Psa374), was investigated more deeply by labeling with carbon-11 (t 1/2 = 20.4 min) for PET studies in mouse and monkey. [11C]Psa374 showed high peak uptake in monkey brain but not in mouse brain. Pharmacological challenges revealed no CSF1R-specific binding in either species at baseline. [11C]CPPC also failed to show specific binding at baseline. Moreover, both [11C]Psa374 and [11C]CPPC showed brain efflux transporter substrate behavior in both species in vivo, although Psa374 did not show liability toward human efflux transporters in vitro. Further development of [11C]Psa374 in non-human primate models of neuroinflammation with demonstration of CSF1R-specific binding would be required to warrant the fluorine-18 labeling of Psa374 with a view to possible application in human subjects.

DMD Genotypes and Motor Function in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: A Multi-institution Meta-analysis With Implications for Clinical Trials.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Clinical trials of genotype-targeted treatments in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) traditionally compare treated patients with untreated patients with the same DMD genotype class. This avoids confounding of drug efficacy by genotype effects but also shrinks the pool of eligible controls, increasing challenges for trial enrollment in this already rare disease. To evaluate the suitability of genotypically unmatched controls in DMD, we quantified effects of genotype class on 1-year changes in motor function endpoints used in clinical trials. METHODS: More than 1,600 patient-years of follow-up (>700 patients) were studied from 6 real-world/natural history data sources (UZ Leuven, PRO-DMD-01 shared by CureDuchenne, iMDEX, North Star UK, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, and the DMD Italian Group), with genotypes classified as amenable to skipping exons 44, 45, 51, or 53, or other skippable, nonsense, and other mutations. Associations between genotype class and 1-year changes in North Star Ambulatory Assessment total score (ΔNSAA) and in 10-m walk/run velocity (Δ10MWR) were studied in each data source with and without adjustment for baseline prognostic factors. RESULTS: The studied genotype classes accounted for approximately 2% of variation in ΔNSAA outcomes after 12 months, whereas other prognostic factors explained >30% of variation in large data sources. Based on a meta-analysis across all data sources, pooled effect estimates for the studied skip-amenable mutation classes were all small in magnitude (<2 units in ΔNSAA total score in 1-year follow up), smaller than clinically important differences in NSAA, and were precisely estimated with standard errors <1 unit after adjusting for nongenotypic prognostic factors. DISCUSSION: These findings suggest the viability of trial designs incorporating genotypically mixed or unmatched controls for up to 12 months in duration for motor function outcomes, which would ease recruitment challenges and reduce numbers of patients assigned to placebos. Such trial designs, including multigenotype platform trials and hybrid designs, should ensure baseline balance between treatment and control groups for the most important prognostic factors, while accounting for small remaining genotype effects quantified in this study.

First-in-Human Evaluation of 18F-PF-06445974, a PET Radioligand That Preferentially Labels Phosphodiesterase-4B.

Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4), which metabolizes the second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), has 4 isozymes: PDE4A, PDE4B, PDE4C, and PDE4D. PDE4B and PDE4D have the highest expression in the brain and may play a role in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression and dementia. This study evaluated the properties of the newly developed PDE4B-selective radioligand 18F-PF-06445974 in the brains of rodents, monkeys, and humans. Methods: Three monkeys and 5 healthy human volunteers underwent PET scans after intravenous injection of 18F-PF-06445974. Brain uptake was quantified as total distribution volume (V T) using the standard 2-tissue-compartment model and serial concentrations of parent radioligand in arterial plasma. Results: 18F-PF-06445974 readily distributed throughout monkey and human brain and had the highest binding in the thalamus. The value of V T was well identified by a 2-tissue-compartment model but increased by 10% during the terminal portions (40 and 60 min) of the monkey and human scans, respectively, consistent with radiometabolite accumulation in the brain. The average human V T values for the whole brain were 9.5 ± 2.4 mL ⋅ cm-3 Radiochromatographic analyses in knockout mice showed that 2 efflux transporters-permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)-completely cleared the problematic radiometabolite but also partially cleared the parent radioligand from the brain. In vitro studies with the human transporters suggest that the parent radioligand was a partial substrate for BCRP and, to a lesser extent, for P-gp. Conclusion: 18F-PF-06445974 quantified PDE4B in the human brain with reasonable, but not complete, success. The gold standard compartmental method of analyzing brain and plasma data successfully identified the regional densities of PDE4B, which were widespread and highest in the thalamus, as expected. Because the radiometabolite-induced error was only about 10%, the radioligand is, in the opinion of the authors, suitable to extend to clinical studies.

Disruption of Pharmacotherapy During the Transition from Adolescence to Early Adulthood in Patients with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Claims Database Analysis Across the USA.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatment rates in adults are low, possibly owing to discontinuation of pediatric care due to various circumstances (including inadequate health insurance coverage, poor disease insight, and patient/family resistance, as well as those who manage their ADHD independent of pharmacologic intervention) during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. To improve the understanding of treatment patterns during this transition, this study characterized pharmacotherapy use in patients with ADHD aged 16-21 years. METHODS: A retrospective claims analysis of the IBM® MarketScan® Commercial Databases, which represent all census regions of the USA, included patients aged 16-21 years with two or more ADHD diagnoses between 1/1/2008 and 12/31/2017 (one or more diagnoses during the year of age 17) who were continuously enrolled from ages 16-21 years and prescribed ADHD medication for ≥ 6 months at age 17 years. Pharmacotherapy use was assessed longitudinally. Comparisons between ages were conducted using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and McNemar tests. Treatment discontinuation was estimated using Kaplan-Meier analyses. RESULTS: The analysis included 10,292 patients. The overall percentage of patients receiving pharmacotherapy significantly decreased (p < 0.001, regardless of treatment type and presence of co-occurring psychiatric disorders) as patients aged, with a median time to treatment discontinuation of 2.94 years. Among patients using pharmacotherapy at the age of 17 years, more than 30% were no longer using pharmacotherapy at age 21 years. As patients aged, the percentage using long-acting amphetamines or methylphenidates decreased, and the percentage receiving no treatment increased. The percentage of patients with disrupted treatment from age 18 to 21 years ranged from 17.9 to 24.1%. After transitioning to disrupted treatment or no treatment, low percentages of patients returned to pharmacotherapy use (disrupted treatment: 15.7-21.5% per year; no treatment, 2.7-3.8% per year). Across all age groups, statistically significantly greater (p < 0.05) percentages of patients with co-occurring psychiatric disorders used lisdexamfetamine, dextroamphetamine-amphetamine mix short acting, and non-stimulants compared with patients without co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Patients with co-occurring psychiatric disorders remained on ADHD pharmacotherapy longer and switched or augmented their pharmacotherapy more frequently than patients without co-occurring psychiatric comorbidities. CONCLUSIONS: Patients rarely reinitiated treatment after pharmacotherapy was disrupted or discontinued, emphasizing the need for increased focus on the management of ADHD as patients transition from adolescence to adulthood.

An Economic Evaluation of Pembrolizumab Versus Other Adjuvant Treatment Strategies for Resected High-Risk Stage III Melanoma in the USA.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Over the past 5 years, adjuvant treatment options for surgically resected stage III melanoma have expanded with the introduction of several novel immune checkpoint inhibitors and targeted therapies. Pembrolizumab, a programmed cell death protein 1 inhibitor, received US Food and Drug Administration approval in 2019 for resected high-risk stage III melanoma based on significantly longer recurrence-free survival versus placebo. This study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of pembrolizumab versus other adjuvant treatment strategies for resected high-risk stage III melanoma from a US health system perspective. METHODS: A Markov cohort-level model with four states (recurrence-free, locoregional recurrence, distant metastases, death) estimated costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) for pembrolizumab versus routine observation and other adjuvant comparators: ipilimumab in the overall population; and dabrafenib + trametinib in the BRAF-mutation positive (BRAF+) subgroup. Transition probabilities starting from recurrence-free were estimated through parametric multi-state modeling based on phase 3 KEYNOTE-054 (NCT02362594) trial data for pembrolizumab and observation, and network meta-analyses for other comparators. Post-recurrence transitions were modeled based on electronic medical records data and trials in advanced/metastatic melanoma. Utilities were derived using quality-of-life data from KEYNOTE-054 and literature. Costs of treatment, adverse events, disease management, and terminal care were included. RESULTS: Over a lifetime, pembrolizumab, ipilimumab, and observation were associated with QALYs of 9.24, 7.09, and 5.95 and total costs of $511,290, $992,721, and $461,422, respectively (2019 US dollars). Pembrolizumab was thus dominant (less costly, more effective) versus ipilimumab, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $15,155/QALY versus observation. In the BRAF+ subgroup, pembrolizumab dominated dabrafenib + trametinib and observation, decreasing costs by $62,776 and $11,250 and increasing QALYs by 0.93 and 3.10 versus these comparators, respectively. Results were robust in deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: As adjuvant treatment for resected stage III melanoma, pembrolizumab was found to be dominant and therefore cost-effective compared with the active comparators ipilimumab and dabrafenib + trametinib. Pembrolizumab increased costs relative to observation in the overall population, with sufficient incremental benefit to be considered cost-effective based on typical willingness-to-pay thresholds.

Prognostic factors for changes in the timed 4-stair climb in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and implications for measuring drug efficacy: A multi-institutional collaboration.

The timed 4-stair climb (4SC) assessment has been used to measure function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) practice and research. We sought to identify prognostic factors for changes in 4SC, assess their consistency across data sources, and the extent to which prognostic scores could be useful in DMD clinical trial design and analysis. Data from patients with DMD in the placebo arm of a phase 3 trial (Tadalafil DMD trial) and two real-world sources (Universitaire Ziekenhuizen, Leuven, Belgium [Leuven] and Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center [CCHMC]) were analyzed. One-year changes in 4SC completion time and velocity (stairs/second) were analyzed. Prognostic models included age, height, weight, steroid use, and multiple timed function tests and were developed using multivariable regression, separately in each data source. Simulations were used to quantify impacts on trial sample size requirements. Data on 1-year changes in 4SC were available from the Tadalafil DMD trial (n = 92) Leuven (n = 67), and CCHMC (n = 212). Models incorporating multiple timed function tests, height, and weight significantly improved prognostic accuracy for 1-year change in 4SC (R2: 29%-36% for 4SC velocity, and 29%-34% for 4SC time) compared to models including only age, baseline 4SC and steroid duration (R2:8%-17% for 4SC velocity and 2%-13% for 4SC time). Measures of walking and rising ability contributed important prognostic information for changes in 4SC. In a randomized trial with equal allocation to treatment and placebo, adjustment for such a prognostic score would enable detection (at 80% power) of a treatment effect of 0.25 stairs/second with 100-120 patients, compared to 170-190 patients without prognostic score adjustment. Combining measures of ambulatory function doubled prognostic accuracy for 1-year changes in 4SC completion time and velocity. Randomized clinical trials incorporating a validated prognostic score could reduce sample size requirements by approximately 40%. Knowledge of important prognostic factors can also inform adjusted comparisons to external controls.

Cost-effectiveness of pembrolizumab for the adjuvant treatment of resected high-risk stage III melanoma in the United States.

Aims: To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of adjuvant pembrolizumab relative to observation alone following complete resection of high-risk stage III melanoma with lymph node involvement, from a US health system perspective. Materials and methods: A Markov cohort model with four health states (recurrence-free, locoregional recurrence, distant metastases, and death) was developed to estimate costs, life-years, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) associated with pembrolizumab vs observation over a lifetime (46-year) horizon. Using a parametric multi-state modeling approach, transition probabilities starting from recurrence-free were estimated based on patient-level data from KEYNOTE-054 (NCT02362594), a direct head-to-head phase 3 trial. Post-recurrence transition probabilities were informed by real-world retrospective data and clinical trials in advanced melanoma. Health state utilities and adverse event-related disutility were derived from KEYNOTE-054 trial data and published literature. Costs of drug acquisition and administration, adverse events, disease management, and terminal care were estimated in 2018 US dollars. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess robustness. Results: Over a lifetime horizon, adjuvant pembrolizumab and observation were associated with total QALYs of 9.24 and 5.95, total life-years of 10.54 and 7.15, and total costs of $489,820 and $440,431, respectively. The resulting incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for pembrolizumab vs observation were $15,009/QALY and $14,550/life-year. Across the range of input values and assumptions tested in deterministic sensitivity analyses, pembrolizumab ranged from being a dominant strategy to having an ICER of $57,449/QALY vs observation. The ICER was below a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000/QALY in 90.2% of probabilistic simulations. Limitations: Long-term extrapolation of outcomes was based on interim results from KEYNOTE-054, with a median follow-up of 15 months. Conclusions: Based on common willingness-to-pay benchmarks, pembrolizumab is highly cost-effective compared with observation alone for the adjuvant treatment of completely resected stage III melanoma in the US.

Real-World Effectiveness and Tolerability of Pazopanib as First Targeted Therapy in Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma: A Retrospective Chart Review in Latin America.

INTRODUCTION: Pazopanib is approved in Latin America as first targeted therapy for patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). METHODS: A retrospective chart review of adult patients with mRCC who initiated pazopanib as first targeted therapy between January 2011 and March 2016 was conducted among oncology care centers in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico. Patient characteristics, treatment patterns, overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), and adverse events were summarized. RESULTS: A total of 156 charts of patients with mRCC receiving first-line pazopanib were reviewed (29, 54, 27, 28, and 18 patients from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico, respectively). The mean age at initial mRCC diagnosis was 61.6 years, 73.7% were male, and 51.3% were Hispanic. The median dose of pazopanib was 800 mg and the median time from initial mRCC diagnosis to pazopanib start was 2.2 months. The median time on treatment was 10.0 months. At the time of data extraction, 16.7% of patients remained on pazopanib, with clinical progression listed as the main reason for discontinuation. Subsequent therapy was received by 25.6% of patients; the most common were everolimus (9.6%) and axitinib (5.8%). Overall, median PFS and OS were 10.8 and 16.9 months, respectively, and varied across countries. The most common all-grade adverse events were diarrhea (44.9%), asthenia/fatigue (43.6%), and nausea (28.8%). CONCLUSIONS: Pazopanib was used for first-line mRCC treatment in a clinically diverse patient population across Latin America. Real-world PFS and tolerability were similar to clinical studies of pazopanib. FUNDING: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, Inc.