Carbonated tiger-high above-ground biomass carbon stock in protected areas and corridors and its observed negative relationship with tiger population density and occupancy in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal.

Healthy natural forests maintain and/or enhances carbon stock while also providing potential habitat and an array of services to wildlife including large carnivores such as the tiger. This study is the first of its kind in assessing relationships between above-ground biomass carbon stock, tiger density and occupancy probability and its status in protected areas, corridors, and forest connectivity blocks. The dataset used to assess the relationship were: (1) Converged posterior tiger density estimates from camera trap data derived from Bayesian- Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture model from Chitwan National Park; (2) Site wise probability of tiger occupancy estimated across the Terai Arc Landscape and (3) Habitat wise above-ground biomass carbon stock estimated across the Terai Arc Landscape. Carbon stock maps were derived based on eight habitat classes and conservation units linking satellite (Landsat 7 ETM+) images and field collected sampling data. A significant negative relationship (r = -0.20, p<0.01) was observed between above-ground biomass carbon stock and tiger density in Chitwan National Park and with tiger occupancy (r = -0.24, p = 0.023) in the landscape. Within protected areas, we found highest mean above-ground biomass carbon stock in high density mixed forest (~223 tC/ha) and low in degraded scrubland (~73.2 tC/ha). Similarly, we found: (1) highest tiger density ~ 0.06 individuals per 0.33 km2 in the riverine forest and lowest estimates (~0.00) in degraded scrubland; and (2) predictive tiger density of 0.0135 individuals per 0.33 km2 is equivalent to mean total of 43.7 tC/ha in Chitwan National Park. Comparatively, we found similar above-ground biomass carbon stock among corridors, large forest connectivity blocks (~117 tC/ha), and within in tiger bearing protected areas (~119 tC/ha). Carbon conservation through forest restoration particularly in riverine habitats (forest and grassland) and low transitional state forests (degraded scrubland) provides immense opportunities to generate win-win solutions, sequester more carbon and maintain habitat integrity for tigers and other large predators.

Wildlife in climate refugia: Mammalian diversity, occupancy, and tiger distribution in the Western Himalayas, Nepal.

Anthropogenic land-use change continues to be predicated as a major driver of terrestrial biodiversity loss for the rest of this century. It has been determined that the effect of climate change on wildlife population will accelerate the rate and process of decline of global vertebrate populations. We investigated wildlife composition, occupancy, and activity pattern along the larger climate resilient forests that serve as microrefugia for a wide range of species under the escalating climate change. We used camera trap survey covering 250 km2 of climate microrefugia in Dadeldhura hills in far western region of Nepal. We used 62 trapping locations accumulating 1800 trap nights taking 98,916 photographs in 62 days-survey period during the summer season of 2020. We photographed 23 mammalian species with estimated species richness of 30 species (95% CI: 25-34) based on multi-species occupancy model. We estimated overall species occupancy ψ(SE(ψ)) to be 0.87 (0.09) in climatic microrefugia. While human activity predominated throughout the day, the majority of animals was found to exhibit nocturnal temporal patterns. Tiger and hyaena, two of the top predators, were newly discovered in the western Himalayan range of Nepal, with their discovery at the 34 highest elevations of 2511 meters and 2000m, respectively. In Nepal, high-altitude tiger range is characterized by tiger distribution above a 2000 m cutoff representing habitats in the physiographic zone of high mountains and above. Our findings establish a baseline and show that the climatic microrefugia that have been identified have high levels of species richness and occupancy, which characterize the Dadeldhura hill forest ranges as biologically varied and ecologically significant habitat. These areas identified as climatic microrefugia habitats should be the focus of conservation efforts, particularly efforts to reduce human disturbance and adapt to climate change.

Distribution and habitat attributes associated with the Himalayan red panda in the westernmost distribution range.

The Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens), a recently confirmed distinct species in the red panda genus, is distributed in Nepal, India, Bhutan, and south Tibet. Nepal represents the westernmost distribution of the Himalayan red panda. This study aims to determine important habitat features influencing the distribution of red panda and recommend possible habitat corridors. This manuscript described current potential habitat of 3,222 km2 with the relative abundance of 3.34 signs/km in Nepal. Aspect, canopy cover, bamboo cover, and distance to water were the important habitat attributes. It suggested five potential corridors in western Nepal. Overall, the study has important implications for conservation of the Himalayan red panda in western distribution range.

Landscape variables affecting the Himalayan red panda Ailurus fulgens occupancy in wet season along the mountains in Nepal.

The Himalayan red panda is an endangered mammal endemic to Eastern Himalayan and South Western China. Data deficiency often hinders understanding of their spatial distribution and habitat use, which is critical for species conservation planning. We used sign surveys covering the entire potential red panda habitat over 22,453 km2 along the mid-hills and high mountains encompassing six conservation complexes in Nepal. To estimate red panda distribution using an occupancy framework, we walked 1,451 km along 446 sampled grid cells out of 4,631 grid cells in the wet season of 2016. We used single-species, single-season models to make inferences regarding covariates influencing detection and occupancy. We estimated the probability of detection and occupancy based on model-averaging techniques and drew predictive maps showing site-specific occupancy estimates. We observed red panda in 213 grid cells and found covariates such as elevation, distance to water sources, and bamboo cover influencing the occupancy. Red panda detection probability [Formula: see text] estimated at 0.70 (0.02). We estimated red panda site occupancy (sampled grid cells) and landscape occupancy (across the potential habitat) [Formula: see text] at 0.48 (0.01) and 0.40 (0.02) respectively. The predictive map shows a site-specific variation in the spatial distribution of this arboreal species along the priority red panda conservation complexes. Data on their spatial distribution may serve as a baseline for future studies and are expected to aid in species conservation planning in priority conservation complexes.

Red panda fine-scale habitat selection along a Central Himalayan longitudinal gradient.

Red panda Ailurus fulgens, an endangered habitat specialist, inhabits a narrow distribution range in bamboo abundance forests along mountain slopes in the Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains. However, their habitat use may be different in places with different longitudinal environmental gradients, climatic regimes, and microclimate. This study aimed to determine the habitat variables affecting red panda distribution across different longitudinal gradients through a multivariate analysis. We studied habitat selection patterns along the longitudinal gradient in Nepal's Himalaya which is grouped into the eastern, central, and western complexes. We collected data on red panda presence and habitat variables (e.g., tree richness, canopy cover, bamboo abundance, water availability, tree diameter, tree height) by surveys along transects throughout the species' potential range. We used a multimodal inference approach with a generalized linear model to test the relative importance of environmental variables. Although the study showed that bamboo abundance had a major influence, habitat selection was different across longitudinal zones. Both canopy cover and species richness were unimportant in eastern Nepal, but their influence increased progressively toward the west. Conversely, tree height showed a decreasing influence on habitat selection from Eastern to Western Nepal. Red panda's habitat selection revealed in this study corresponds to the uneven distribution of vegetation assemblages and the dry climatic gradient along the eastern-western Himalayas which could be related to a need to conserve energy and thermoregulate. This study has further highlighted the need of importance of bamboo conservation and site-specific conservation planning to ensure long-term red panda conservation.

Status of gastrointestinal parasites in Red Panda of Nepal.

Red pandas are known to be highly susceptible to endoparasites, which can have a prominent impact on the population dynamics of this endangered species. There are very limited published reports on prevalence and risk of parasites in wild populations of red panda, especially localized reports. This study attempts to provide an in-depth insight of the status of endoparasites in red pandas, which is critical for strengthening conservation efforts. A total of 272 fecal samples were collected through systematic sampling across the red panda distribution range in Nepal and coprological examination was completed using standard techniques. It was followed by an estimation of prevalence and mean intensity of parasites, as well as statistical analysis, which was carried out using R statistical software. Parasite prevalence was documented in 90.80% (n = 247) out of 272 samples examined which includes seven different species along with three genera of parasites belonging to Protozoans (3 species), Cestodes (1 genus, 1 species) and Nematodes (2 genera, 3 species). Nematodes predominated in all infected samples (87.62%). Prevalence of Ancyclostoma duodenale (n = 227, 70.06%), having a mean intensity of 3.45 ± 2.88 individuals per sample, was observed, followed by Ascaris lumbricoides (n = 19, 5.86%) and Entamoeba histolytica (n = 24, 7.41%). Eight variables for assessing the determinants of infestation were tested: protected areas; non-protected areas; aspect; elevation; slope; and distance to water sources, herding stations, and settlements. Only the settlement displayed significant association (ß = -1534e-04, t =  - 2.192, p = 0.0293) though each parasite species displayed dissimilar association with different variables. This study indicates the urgent need of improving existing herding practice through habitat zonation, rotational grazing, medication of livestock, and prohibition of open defecation within and around red panda habitat.

Distribution and habitat use of red panda in the Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape of Nepal.

In Nepal, the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) has been sparsely studied, although its range covers a wide area. The present study was carried out in the previously untapped Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) situated in central Nepal with an aim to explore current distributional status and identify key habitat use. Extensive field surveys conducted in 10 red panda range districts were used to estimate species distribution by presence-absence occupancy modeling and to predict distribution by presence-only modeling. The presence of red pandas was recorded in five districts: Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Myagdi, Baglung and Dhading. The predictive distribution model indicated that 1,904.44 km2 of potential red panda habitat is available in CHAL with the protected area covering nearly 41% of the total habitat. The habitat suitability analysis based on the probability of occurrence showed only 16.58% (A = 315.81 km2) of the total potential habitat is highly suitable. Red Panda occupancy was estimated to be around 0.0667, indicating nearly 7% (218 km2) of the total habitat is occupied with an average detection probability of 0.4482±0.377. Based on the habitat use analysis, altogether eight variables including elevation, slope, aspect, proximity to water sources, bamboo abundance, height, cover, and seasonal precipitation were observed to have significant roles in the distribution of red pandas. In addition, 25 tree species were documented from red panda sign plots out of 165 species recorded in the survey area. Most common was Betula utilis followed by Rhododendron spp. and Abies spectabilis. The extirpation of red pandas in previously reported areas indicates a need for immediate action for the long-term conservation of this species in CHAL.

Tigers in the Terai: Strong evidence for meta-population dynamics contributing to tiger recovery and conservation in the Terai Arc Landscape.

The source populations of tigers are mostly confined to protected areas, which are now becoming isolated. A landscape scale conservation strategy should strive to facilitate dispersal and survival of dispersing tigers by managing habitat corridors that enable tigers to traverse the matrix with minimal conflict. We present evidence for tiger dispersal along transboundary protected areas complexes in the Terai Arc Landscape, a priority tiger landscape in Nepal and India, by comparing camera trap data, and through population models applied to the long term camera trap data sets. The former showed that 11 individual tigers used the corridors that connected the transboundary protected areas. The estimated population growth rates using the minimum observed population size in two protected areas in Nepal, Bardia National Park and Suklaphanta National Park showed that the increases were higher than expected from growth rates due to in situ reproduction alone. These lines of evidence suggests that tigers are recolonizing Nepal's protected areas from India, after a period of population decline, and that the tiger populations in the transboundary protected areas complexes may be maintained as meta-population. Our results demonstrate the importance of adopting a landscape-scale approach to tiger conservation, especially to improve population recovery and long term population persistence.