Exonic trinucleotide repeat expansions in ZFHX3 cause spinocerebellar ataxia type 4: A poly-glycine disease.

Autosomal-dominant ataxia with sensory and autonomic neuropathy is a highly specific combined phenotype that we described in two Swedish kindreds in 2014; its genetic cause had remained unknown. Here, we report the discovery of exonic GGC trinucleotide repeat expansions, encoding poly-glycine, in zinc finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3) in these families. The expansions were identified in whole-genome datasets within genomic segments that all affected family members shared. Non-expanded alleles carried one or more interruptions within the repeat. We also found ZFHX3 repeat expansions in three additional families, all from the region of Skåne in southern Sweden. Individuals with expanded repeats developed balance and gait disturbances at 15 to 60 years of age and had sensory neuropathy and slow saccades. Anticipation was observed in all families and correlated with different repeat lengths determined through long-read sequencing in two family members. The most severely affected individuals had marked autonomic dysfunction, with severe orthostatism as the most disabling clinical feature. Neuropathology revealed p62-positive intracytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusions in neurons of the central and enteric nervous system, as well as alpha-synuclein positivity. ZFHX3 is located within the 16q22 locus, to which spinocerebellar ataxia type 4 (SCA4) repeatedly had been mapped; the clinical phenotype in our families corresponded well with the unique phenotype described in SCA4, and the original SCA4 kindred originated from Sweden. ZFHX3 has known functions in neuronal development and differentiation n both the central and peripheral nervous system. Our findings demonstrate that SCA4 is caused by repeat expansions in ZFHX3.

Pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

The most common pediatric malignancy is acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), of which T-cell ALL (T-ALL) comprises 10-15% of cases. T-ALL arises in the thymus from an immature thymocyte as a consequence of a stepwise accumulation of genetic and epigenetic aberrations. Crucial biological processes, such as differentiation, self-renewal capacity, proliferation, and apoptosis, are targeted and deranged by several types of neoplasia-associated genetic alteration, for example, translocations, deletions, and mutations of genes that code for proteins involved in signaling transduction, epigenetic regulation, and transcription. Epigenetically, T-ALL is characterized by gene expression changes caused by hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes, histone modifications, and miRNA and lncRNA abnormalities. Although some genetic and gene expression patterns have been associated with certain clinical features, such as immunophenotypic subtype and outcome, none has of yet generally been implemented in clinical routine for treatment decisions. The recent advent of massive parallel sequencing technologies has dramatically increased our knowledge of the genetic blueprint of T-ALL, revealing numerous fusion genes as well as novel gene mutations. The challenges now are to integrate all genetic and epigenetic data into a coherent understanding of the pathogenesis of T-ALL and to translate the wealth of information gained in the last few years into clinical use in the form of improved risk stratification and targeted therapies. Here, we provide an overview of pediatric T-ALL with an emphasis on the acquired genetic alterations that result in this disease. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Prognostic implications of mutations in NOTCH1 and FBXW7 in childhood T-ALL treated according to the NOPHO ALL-1992 and ALL-2000 protocols.

BACKGROUND: In children, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) has inferior prognosis compared with B-cell precursor ALL. In order to improve survival, individualized treatment strategies and thus risk stratification algorithms are warranted, ideally already at the time of diagnosis. PROCEDURE: We analyzed the frequency and prognostic implication of mutations in NOTCH1 and FBXW7 in 79 cases of Swedish childhood T-ALL treated according to the Nordic Society of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (NOPHO) ALL-1992 and ALL-2000 protocols. In a subgroup of patients, we also investigated the functional relevance of NOTCH1 mutations measured as expression of the HES1, MYB, and MYC genes. RESULTS: Forty-seven of the cases (59%) displayed mutations in NOTCH1 and/or FBXW7. There was no difference in overall (P = 0.14) or event-free survival (EFS) (P = 0.10) in patients with T-ALL with mutation(s) in NOTCH1/FBXW7 compared with patients with T-ALL without mutations in any of these genes. T-ALL carrying NOTCH1 mutations had increased HES1 and MYB mRNA expression (HES1 9.2 ± 1.9 (mean ± SEM), MYB 8.7 ± 0.8 (mean ± SEM)) compared to T-ALL with wild-type NOTCH1 (HES1 1.8 ± 0.7, MYB 5.1 ± 1.2, P = 0.02 and 0.008, respectively). In cases of T-ALL with high HES1 expression, improved overall (P = 0.02) and EFS (P = 0.028) was seen. CONCLUSIONS: Increased NOTCH activity, reflected by increased HES1 expression, is associated with improved outcome in pediatric T-ALL, but its role as a diagnostic tool or a therapeutic target in future clinical treatment protocols remains to be elucidated.

Clinical and genetic analyses of a Swedish patient series diagnosed with ataxia.

Hereditary ataxia is a heterogeneous group of complex neurological disorders. Next-generation sequencing methods have become a great help in clinical diagnostics, but it may remain challenging to determine if a genetic variant is the cause of the patient's disease. We compiled a consecutive single-center series of 87 patients from 76 families with progressive ataxia of known or unknown etiology. We investigated them clinically and genetically using whole exome or whole genome sequencing. Test methods were selected depending on family history, clinical phenotype, and availability. Genetic results were interpreted based on the American College of Medical Genetics criteria. For high-suspicion variants of uncertain significance, renewed bioinformatical and clinical evaluation was performed to assess the level of pathogenicity. Thirty (39.5%) of the 76 families had received a genetic diagnosis at the end of our study. We present the predominant etiologies of hereditary ataxia in a Swedish patient series. In two families, we established a clinical diagnosis, although the genetic variant was classified as "of uncertain significance" only, and in an additional three families, results are pending. We found a pathogenic variant in one family, but we suspect that it does not explain the complete clinical picture. We conclude that correctly interpreting genetic variants in complex neurogenetic diseases requires genetics and clinical expertise. The neurologist's careful phenotyping remains essential to confirm or reject a diagnosis, also by reassessing clinical findings after a candidate genetic variant is suggested. Collaboration between neurology and clinical genetics and combining clinical and research approaches optimizes diagnostic yield.

Clinical and cytogenetic features of a population-based consecutive series of 285 pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias: rare T-cell receptor gene rearrangements are associated with poor outcome.

Clinical characteristics and cytogenetic aberrations were ascertained and reviewed in a population-based consecutive series of 285 pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias (T-ALLs) diagnosed between 1992 and 2006 in the Nordic countries. Informative karyotypic results were obtained in 249 (87%) cases, of which 119 (48%) were cytogenetically abnormal. Most (62%) of the aberrant T-ALLs were pseudodiploid. Structural changes were more common than numerical ones; 86% displayed at least one structural abnormality and 41% at least one numerical anomaly. The most frequent abnormalities were T-cell receptor (TCR) gene rearrangements (20%) [TCR;11p13 (10%), TCR;10q24 (3%), TCR;other (8%)], del(9p) (17%), +8 (14%), del(6q) (12%), and 11q23 rearrangements (6%). The TCR;other group comprised the rare rearrangements t(X;14)(p11;q11), t(X;7)(q22;q34), t(1;14)(p32;q11), ins(14;5)(q11;q?q?), inv(7)(p15q34), t(8;14)(q24;q11), t(7;11)(q34;p15), and t(12;14)(p13;q11). The clinical characteristics of this Nordic patient cohort agreed well with previous larger series, with a median age of 9.0 years, male predominance (male/female ratio 3.1), median white blood cell (WBC) count of 66.5 x 10(9)/l, and a high incidence of mediastinal mass and central nervous system involvement (59% and 9.5%, respectively). These features did not differ significantly among the various genetic subgroups. 5-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival for all patients were 0.61 (+/-0.03) and 0.67 (+/-0.03), respectively. In a multivariate analysis, two factors affected negatively the EFS, namely a WBC count of > or =200 x 10(9)/l (P < 0.001) and the presence of rare TCR rearrangements (P = 0.001). In conclusion, in this large series of childhood T-ALLs from the Nordic countries, the cytogenetic findings were not associated with risk of therapy failure with the exception of the TCR;other group. However, further prospective and collaborative investigations of this genetically heterogeneous entity are needed to confirm these results.

The t(X;7)(q22;q34) in paediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia results in overexpression of the insulin receptor substrate 4 gene through illegitimate recombination with the T-cell receptor beta locus.

The t(X;7)(q22;q34), a translocation not previously reported in a neoplastic disorder, was identified and molecularly characterised in a paediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (T-ALL), subsequently shown also to harbour a deletion of 6q, a STIL/TAL1 fusion and an activating NOTCH1 mutation. The t(X;7) was further investigated using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH), real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RQ-PCR) and Western blot analyses. FISH revealed a breakpoint at the T-cell receptor beta locus at 7q34 and mapped the corresponding breakpoint to Xq22.3. The latter region contains only two known genes, namely insulin receptor substrate 4 (IRS4) and collagen, type IV, alpha 5 (COL4A5), the expressions of which were analysed by the use of RQ-PCR. COL4A5 was not differentially expressed in the t(X;7)-positive sample compared to five T-ALL controls. However, a marked, 1000-fold overexpression of IRS4 was identified. Western blot analysis with a monoclonal antibody against IRS4 showed overexpression also at the protein level. Considering that forced expression of several members of the IRS family has been shown to result in increased cell proliferation, for example in haematopoietic cells, we hypothesise that the IRS4 up-regulation in T-ALL is pathogenetically important as a mitogenic stimulus.

Deep sequencing and SNP array analyses of pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveal NOTCH1 mutations in minor subclones and a high incidence of uniparental isodisomies affecting CDKN2A.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is a genetically heterogeneous disease that arises in a multistep fashion through acquisition of several genetic aberrations, subsequently giving rise to a malignant, clonal expansion of T-lymphoblasts. The aim of the present study was to identify additional as well as cooperative genetic events in T-ALL. METHODS: A population-based pediatric T-ALL series comprising 47 cases was investigated by SNP array and deep sequencing analyses of 75 genes, in order to ascertain pathogenetically pertinent aberrations and to identify cooperative events. RESULTS: The majority (92%) of cases harbored copy number aberrations/uniparental isodisomies (UPIDs), with a median of three changes (range 0-11) per case. The genes recurrently deleted comprised CDKN2A, CDKN2B, LEF1, PTEN, RBI, and STIL. No case had a whole chromosome UPID; in fact, literature data show that this is a rare phenomenon in T-ALL. However, segmental UPIDs (sUPIDs) were seen in 42% of our cases, with most being sUPID9p that always were associated with homozygous CDKN2A deletions, with a heterozygous deletion occurring prior to the sUPID9p in all instances. Among the 75 genes sequenced, 14 (19%) were mutated in 28 (72%) of 39 analyzed cases. The genes targeted are involved in signaling transduction, epigenetic regulation, and transcription. In some cases, NOTCH1 mutations were seen in minor subclones and lost at relapse; thus, such mutations can be secondary events. CONCLUSIONS: Deep sequencing and SNP array analyses of T-ALL revealed lack of wUPIDs, a high proportion of sUPID9p targeting CDKN2A, NOTCH1 mutations in subclones, and recurrent mutations of genes involved in signaling transduction, epigenetic regulation, and transcription.

Promoter DNA methylation pattern identifies prognostic subgroups in childhood T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) has improved, but there is a considerable fraction of patients experiencing a poor outcome. There is a need for better prognostic markers and aberrant DNA methylation is a candidate in other malignancies, but its potential prognostic significance in T-ALL is hitherto undecided. DESIGN AND METHODS: Genome wide promoter DNA methylation analysis was performed in pediatric T-ALL samples (n = 43) using arrays covering >27000 CpG sites. Clinical outcome was evaluated in relation to methylation status and compared with a contemporary T-ALL group not tested for methylation (n = 32). RESULTS: Based on CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP), T-ALL samples were subgrouped as CIMP+ (high methylation) and CIMP- (low methylation). CIMP- T-ALL patients had significantly worse overall and event free survival (p = 0.02 and p = 0.001, respectively) compared to CIMP+ cases. CIMP status was an independent factor for survival in multivariate analysis including age, gender and white blood cell count. Analysis of differently methylated genes in the CIMP subgroups showed an overrepresentation of transcription factors, ligands and polycomb target genes. CONCLUSIONS: We identified global promoter methylation profiling as being of relevance for subgrouping and prognostication of pediatric T-ALL.

High incidence of the ETV6/RUNX1 fusion gene in paediatric precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemias with trisomy 21 as the sole cytogenetic change: a Nordic series of cases diagnosed 1989-2005.

Trisomy 21 is common in ETV6/RUNX1-positive acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL); both these aberrations are associated with a favourable outcome. The prognostic impact of +21 as a sole cytogenetic change could be due to a cryptic t(12;21)(p13;q22). The occurrence of ETV6/RUNX1 was determined in 66 childhood ALLs with an acquired +21 and a chromosome number <51. ETV6/RUNX1 was found in 45% of cases and in the majority (10/18; 56%) of ALLs with sole +21. Event-free survival did not differ between the t(12;21)-positive and -negative cases. Thus, the prognostic impact of +21 is not attributable to cryptic ETV6/RUNX1.

Deregulation of cyclin D2 by juxtaposition with T-cell receptor alpha/delta locus in t(12;14)(p13;q11)-positive childhood T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

OBJECTIVES: The t(12;14)(p13;q11)--a recurrent translocation in childhood T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL)--has very recently been molecularly characterized in one case, which displayed overexpression of the cyclin D2 gene (CCND2). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We have characterized two pediatric t(12;14)-positive T-ALLs using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), cDNA microarray, and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS: FISH revealed breakpoints (BPs) in the T-cell receptor alpha/delta locus (14q11) and in the vicinity of the CCND2 gene at 12p13. To investigate the expression of genes in 12p13, cDNA microarray analysis was performed. Expression data for eight genes, including CCND2, surrounding the 12p BP were compared with those in other T-ALLs. The t(12;14)-positive T-ALL displayed an increased expression of CCND2 compared to the controls, whereas the expression of the other genes was similar in all T-ALLs. Expression of CCND2 and two additional genes (PARP11 and FGF23), close to the 12p BP, was investigated with real-time PCR of the two t(12;14)-positive cases and four controls. Neither PARP11 nor FGF23 displayed expression differences among the T-ALLs, whereas CCND2 was clearly overexpressed in both t(12;14)-positive cases as compared to the mean expression level in the controls. CONCLUSION: We have confirmed, in two additional cases, that the recurrent T-ALL-associated t(12;14) results in overexpression of cyclin D2. The t(12;14) is the first neoplasia-associated translocation shown to result in overexpression of cyclin D2. Furthermore, it is the first example of a T-cell neoplasm with a targeted deregulation of a member of a cyclin-encoding gene family.