Isolation and molecular characterization of lumpy skin disease virus from Tamil Nadu, India during the outbreaks from 2020 to 2022.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) caused by LSD virus is a WOAH notifiable, high-impact, transboundary poxviral disease of bovines. The first official report of LSDV in India is from Odisha state during August 2019. Since then, cases have been reported from many states including Tamil Nadu, a Southern state of India. The present study deals with isolation and molecular characterization of LSDV from Tamil Nadu during the period August 2020 to July 2022. LSDV was isolated in embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) and BHK 21 cells and was characterized based on P32, RPO30, and GPCR genes. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that Tamil Nadu isolates from India are closely related to other Indian strains, Kenyan strains and strains from neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal, and Myanmar confirming the common exotic source for the transboundary spread across borders. The presence of unique signature of amino acid (aa) at specific positions (A11, T12, T34, S99, and P199) in the GPCR sequence confirmed the identity of LSDV. A twelve nucleotide (nt94-105) insertion and corresponding aa (TILS) at 30-33 position was found in GPCR sequence and characteristic amino acid proline at 98 position (P98) in the RPO30 gene sequence of our isolates was similar to strains from Bangladesh, Nepal, and Myanmar. Further, dissimilarity of our isolates from Neethling like vaccine strains confirms the circulation of virulent filed strains responsible for the outbreaks.

Comparative phylogenomics of Trueperella pyogenes reveals host-based distinction of strains.

Trueperella pyogenes, an opportunistic pathogen causes various ailments in different animals. Different strains from different animals have distinct characters phenotypically and genotypically. Hence understanding the strains in a particular geographical location helps in framing the preventive measures. Comparative genomics of all the available T. pyogenes genome in the NCBI was conducted to understand the relatedness among strains. Whole genome phylogeny showed host associated clustering of strains recovered from swine lungs. Core genome phylogeny also showed host associated clustering mimicking whole genome phylogeny results. MLST analysis showed that there was higher diversity among cattle strains. Multidimensional scaling revealed five swine clusters, two cattle and buffalo clusters. Pangenome analysis also showed that T. pyogenes had an open genome with 57.09% accessory genome. Host specific genes were identified by pangenome analysis, and (R)-citramalate synthase was specific for swine strains of Asian origin. Host specifc genes identified by pangenome analysis can be exploited for developing a molecular assay to specifically identify the strains. The study shows that MLST having higher discriminatory power can be used as an epidemiological tool for strain discrimination of T. pyogenes.

First report of the whole genome of Moraxella bovoculi genotype 1 from India and comparative genomics of Moraxella bovoculi to identify genotype-specific markers.

Moraxella bovoculi has been isolated frequently from cattle with Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK). Two diverse genotypes of M. bovoculi, 1 and 2 were identified based on whole genome sequence analysis. It is essential to discriminate between the two genotypes to frame prevention and control measures. The whole genome of M. bovoculi TN7 was sequenced and compared to other M. bovoculi strains available in the NCBI database. M. bovoculi TN7 was found to be genotype 1, had an RTX toxin operon and pilA gene that are the known virulence factors in related Moraxella sp., but lacked antimicrobial resistance genes. M. bovoculi was found to have an open pangenome with 4051 (75.31%) accessory genes, and the addition of each new genome adds 18 genes to the pangenome. Comparison of pilin protein amino acid sequences revealed three new sequence types. Furthermore, the presence of linx, nagL, swrC and mdtA genes was found to be genotype 1 specific, whereas hyaD, garR, gbsA, yhdG, gabT, iclR, higB2, hmuU, hmuT and hemS were found only in genotype 2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) primers were designed and evaluated on strain TN7 plus seven additional strains accessible to us that had not been whole genome sequenced. This initial evaluation of the designed primers for the linX and hyaD genes produced the expected banding patterns on PCR gels for genotypes 1 and 2, respectively, among the 8 strains. The genotype-specific genes identified in this study can be used as markers for accurate diagnosis of genotype 1 isolates and this can aid in the development of autogenous or other molecular vaccines for treatment of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) in resource-limited research settings.

Virulence genes and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus region (ERIC) profiling reveals highly diverse genetic population among avian strains of Pasteurella multocida.

Pasteurella multocida is a multispecies pathogen with certain host specific capsular types but interspecies transmission cannot be overlooked. Knowing the diversity of P. multocida in a geographical location is essential to formulate a vaccination programme. Diversity among the P. multocida isolates from different avian species recovered in the state of Tamil Nadu, India was studied using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus region (ERIC)-PCR and virulence gene profiling (VP). Capsular typing revealed that 44 (97.78%) strains belonged to capsular type A while only one (2.22%) strain belonged to capsular type B. ERIC-PCR analysis showed eight different clusters and four individual strains. The index of discrimination (D value) was found to be 0.8899. Virulence profiling showed that genes fimA, pfhA, hsf-2 and pmHAS were found in 100% of the strains while ompH, omp87, ompA, plpB, sodA, sodC, ptfA, hsf-1, exbB, fur, hgbA and hgbB were found in ≥90% of the strains. Dermonecrotoxin gene toxA was present only in 4.44% of the strains, while nanH in 68.89% and nanB in 88.89% of the strains. One strain each from turkey and Guinea fowl had toxA gene. Correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between ptfA and hgbA gene, exbB and fur gene, ptfA and sodC gene, exbB and hsf-1 gene, ompA and ompH gene. Majority of duck strains clustered together both in ERIC and virulence gene profiles. Turkey strains were highly diverse with different VPs and ERIC-PCR patterns.

Toxinotyping and molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Clostridium perfringens isolated from different sources of livestock and poultry.

The present study was designed to understand the presence of antimicrobial resistance among the prevalent toxinotypes of Clostridium perfringens recovered from different animals of Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 75 (10.76%) C. perfringens were isolated from 697 multi-species fecal and intestinal content samples. C. perfringens type A (90.67%), type C (2.67%), type D (4%) and type F (2.67%) were recovered. Maximum number of isolates were recovered from dog (n = 20, 24.10%) followed by chicken (n = 19, 5.88%). Recovered isolates were resistant to gentamicin (44.00%), erythromycin (40.00%), bacitracin (40.00%), and tetracycline (26.67%), phenotypically and most of the isolates were found to be resistant to multiple antimicrobials. Genotypic characterization revealed that tetracycline (41.33%), erythromycin (34.66%) and bacitracin (17.33%) resistant genes were present individually or in combination among the isolates. Combined results of phenotypic and genotypic characterization showed the highest percentage of erythromycin resistance (26.66%) among the isolates. None of the isolates showed amplification for lincomycin resistance genes. The correlation matrix analysis of genotypic resistance showed a weak positive relationship between the tetracycline and bacitracin resistance while a weak negative relationship between the tetracycline and erythromycin resistance. The present study thus reports the presence of multiple-resistance genes among C. perfringens isolates that may be involved in the dissemination of resistance to other bacteria present across species. Further insights into the genome can help to understand the mechanism involved in gene transfer so that measures can be taken to prevent the AMR spread.

A comprehensive review on avian chlamydiosis: a neglected zoonotic disease.

Avian chlamydiosis is one of the important neglected diseases with critical zoonotic potential. Chlamydia psittaci, the causative agent, affects most categories of birds, livestock, companion animals, and humans. It has many obscured characters and epidemiological dimensions, which makes it unique among other bacterial agents. Recent reports on transmission from equine to humans alarmed the public health authorities, and it necessitates the importance of routine screening of this infectious disease. High prevalence of spill-over infection in equines was associated with reproductive losses. Newer avian chlamydial species are being reported in the recent years. It is a potential biological warfare agent and the disease is an occupational hazard mainly to custom officers handling exotic birds. Prevalence of the disease in wild birds, pet birds, and poultry causes economic losses to the poultry industry and the pet bird trade. Interestingly, there are speculations on the 'legal' and 'illegal' bird trade that may be the global source of some of the most virulent strains of this pathogen. The mortality rate generally ranges from 5 to 40% in untreated cases, but it can sometimes be higher in co-infection. The intracellular lifestyle of this pathogen makes the diagnosis more complicated and there is also lack of accurate diagnostics. Resistance to antibiotics is reported only in some pathogens of the Chlamydiaceae family, but routine screening may assess the actual situation in all pathogens. Due to the diverse nature of the pathogen, the organism necessitates the One Health partnerships to have complete understanding. The present review focuses on the zoonotic aspects of avian chlamydiosis with its new insights into the pathogenesis, transmission, treatment, prevention, and control strategies. The review also briefs on the basic understandings and complex epidemiology of avian chlamydiosis, highlighting the need for research on emerging one health perspectives.

Marker-less deletion of cctA gene of Clostridium chauvoei.

Clostridium chauvoei causes blackleg disease in domestic animals, especially cattle and sheep. The pathogen produces several toxins including CctA - a hemolysin and protective antigen. Molecular pathogenesis of the disease is poorly understood, possibly due to lack of genetic manipulation tools for C. chauvoei. In the present study, we report the marker-less deletion of cctA gene using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. The C. chauvoei cctA deletion mutant had negligible hemolytic and significantly reduced cytotoxic activities. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of genetic manipulation of C. chauvoei. The method we used in this study can be applied for genetic manipulation of C. chauvoei to better understand the pathogenesis and genetics of the pathogen.

Nutritional applications and beneficial health applications of green tea and l-theanine in some animal species: A review.

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is a popular herbal plant with abundant health benefits, and thus, it has been used as a potent antioxidant for a long time. Based on the available literature, the diversity and the availability of multifunctional compounds in green tea offer its noteworthy potential against many diseases such as liver and heart diseases, inflammatory conditions and different metabolic syndromes. Owing to its bioactive constituents including caffeine, amino acids, l-theanine, polyphenols/flavonoids and carbohydrates among other potent molecules, green tea has many pharmacological and physiological effects. The effects of green tea include anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-stress, hypolipidaemic, hypocholesterolaemic, skin/collagen protective, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, anti-infective, anti-parasitic, anti-cancerous, inhibition of tumorigenesis and angiogenesis, anti-mutagenic, and memory and bone health-improving activities. Apart from its utilization in humans, green tea has also played a significant role in livestock production such as in dairy, piggery, goatry and poultry industries. Supplementation of animal feeds with green tea and its products is in line with the modern concepts of organic livestock production. Hence, incorporating green tea or green tea by-products into the diet of poultry and other livestock can enhance the value of the products obtained from these animals. Herein, an effort is made to extend the knowledge on the importance and useful applications of green tea and its important constituents in animal production including poultry. This review will be a guideline for researchers and entrepreneurs who want to explore the utilization of feeds supplemented with green tea and green tea by-products for the enhancement of livestock production.

In ovo delivery of various biological supplements, vaccines and drugs in poultry: current knowledge.

The technique of delivering various nutrients, supplements, immunostimulants, vaccines, and drugs via the in ovo route is gaining wide attention among researchers worldwide for boosting production performance, immunity and safeguarding the health of poultry. It involves direct administration of the nutrients and biologics into poultry eggs during the incubation period and before the chicks hatch out. In ovo delivery of nutrients has been found to be more effective than post-hatch administration in poultry production. The supplementation of feed additives, nutrients, hormones, probiotics, prebiotics, or their combination via in ovo techniques has shown diverse advantages for poultry products, such as improved growth performance and feed conversion efficiency, optimum development of the gastrointestinal tract, enhancing carcass yield, decreased embryo mortality, and enhanced immunity of poultry. In ovo delivery of vaccination has yielded a better response against various poultry pathogens than vaccination after hatch. So, this review has aimed to provide an insight on in ovo technology and its potential applications in poultry production to deliver different nutrients, supplements, beneficial microbes, vaccines, and drugs directly into the developing embryo to achieve an improvement in post-hatch growth, immunity, and health of poultry. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Candida albicans - Biology, molecular characterization, pathogenicity, and advances in diagnosis and control - An update.

Candida albicans is an emerging multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen representing an important source of invasive disease in humans and generating high healthcare costs worldwide. This fungus is frequently found in different anatomical sites of healthy persons and could induce systemic and superficial infections under optimal environmental conditions. Invasive candidiasis (IC) is an important nosocomial infection with high morbidity and mortality rates in hospitalized children. It represents a major source of prolonged infections in intensive care unit (ICU), particularly in immunosuppressed or elderly patients. Clinical diagnosis of candidiasis could be difficult because of the lack of specific symptoms and clinical signs. Although C. albicans is the most frequently isolated Candida species in IC, non-albicans Candida (NAC) species are also commonly detected. Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE), fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), electrophoretic karyotyping (EK), and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), multilocus sequence typing (MLST) are known as an efficient technique used for molecular typing of Candida species. The efficacy of antifungal treatment against candidiasis has been evaluated and discussed in the context of large epidemiological studies. The present review highlights the etiology, epidemiology, molecular typing, commensalism and virulence factors, along with the appropriate prevention and control strategies regarding this widespread pathogen.

Cypermethrin induced toxicities in fish and adverse health outcomes: Its prevention and control measure adaptation.

Pesticides are being widely employed in the modern agriculture, though in different quantities, across the globe. Although it is useful for crops yield enhancement, however, there are the serious environment, health and safety related concerns for aquatic and terrestrial living biomes that include humans, animals, and plants. Various in practice and emerging pesticides adversely affect the survival, development and biological systems stability. Several research efforts have been made to highlight the bio-safety and toxicological features of toxicants through risk assessment studies using different animal models, e.g., different fish species. Among several pesticides, cypermethrin is extensively used in agriculture and households, and the reported concentrations of this pesticide in different water bodies including rivers and streams, soil and even in rainwater are threatening. Consequently, cypermethrin is considered for risk assessment studies to know about its deep and different level of toxicological effects subject to its dose, exposure time and route. The cypermethrin existence/persistence in the environment is posing a severe threat to humans as well as another non-target terrestrial and aquatic organism. Herein, the toxic effects of pesticides, with special reference to cypermethrin, on fish, the mode of toxicity, concerns regarding public health and harmful impacts on human beings are comprehensively reviewed. The information is also given on their appropriate control and prevention strategies.

Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification test for the diagnosis of contagious agalactia in goats.

Contagious agalactia is a highly infectious disease affecting sheep and goats, mainly caused by Mycoplasma agalactiae. Although various tests are available for diagnosis of contagious agalactia, none of them is credited with the capacity to provide rapid and cost-effective diagnosis. This article reports the development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) test targeting the p40 gene of M. agalactiae, for the diagnosis of classical contagious agalactia. Optimum amplification was obtained at 58 °C in 70 min. The developed test was found to be 100-fold more sensitive than PCR and detected up to 20-fg level of DNA. The test was also superior to conventional PCR in detecting from artificially contaminated milk, i.e. 10(4)-fold more sensitive. The developed LAMP test could detect up to 10 cfu/ml of artificially contaminated milk, indicating its potential for being developed as a field test for rapid and sensitive diagnosis.

Gross and histopathological features of tuberculosis in cattle, buffalo and spotted deer (Axis axis) caused by Mycobacterium orygis.

Mycobacterium orygis has been isolated from several cases of tuberculosis in various species of animal in India but documentation of the histopathological lesions caused by this organism is scant. Lung and liver tissues with caseous nodules from cattle (n = 8), lung samples from spotted deer (Axis axis) (n = 5) and lung and mediastinal lymph node samples from buffalo (n = 9) were subjected to histopathology and isolation of Mycobacterium spp. Isolation was carried out using the BACTEC MGIT 960 Automated Mycobacterial Detection System and acid-fast positive cultures were identified to species level using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) employing published primer pairs. Three M. orygis isolates (two from cattle, one from deer) were obtained, whole genome sequenced and the sequences submitted to the National Center for Biotechnology Information Sequence Read Archive. Eight samples (four cattle, one deer and three buffalo) were confirmed as M. orygis positive by PCR. Histopathological examination of the M. orygis-PCR-positive cattle samples revealed acid-fast organisms in lung sections along with macrophages, epithelioid cells, lymphocytes and Langhans giant cells. Granuloma stages I to IV were seen in the cattle and buffalo samples and stage III in the spotted deer sample. This report is the first description of the gross and histopathological lesions of tuberculosis caused by M. orygis in buffalo and documents the gross and histopathological findings of M. orygis tuberculosis in cattle and deer.

Foremost report of the whole genome of Spirabiliibacterium mucosae from India and comparative genomics of the novel genus Spirabiliibacterium.

Several Pasteurella like organisms isolated from various avian species were recently reclassified into new genus based on whole genome sequence analysis. One such Pasteurella like organism, Bisgaard taxon 14 was classified as Spirabiliibacterium mucosae. In the present study, a Gram-negative organism was isolated from ailing pigeons with respiratory infection from a farm in Tamil Nadu, India and the organism was misidentified as Burkholderia mallei by Vitek 2 compact system based on biochemical characterization. Since, B. mallei is highly pathogenic and zoonotic, to further confirm, 16S rDNA sequencing and analysis was carried out which revealed that the strain belonged to Bisgaard taxon 14 (Spirabiliibacterium mucosae). To further confirm the findings, whole genome sequencing of the isolate was performed. Whole genome phylogeny and average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis showed that the genome was closely matching with Spirabiliibacterium mucosae type strain 20,609 /3. Hence, the strain from pigeon was named as Spirabiliibacterium mucosae TN_CUL_2021 and the genome was submitted in NCBI SRA database. The genome of S. mucosase TN_CUL_2021 is only the second genome available worldwide in the NCBI database. Comparative genome analysis of 26 Pasteurellaceae family strains revealed 1101 genes specific for Spirabiliibacterium mucosae. Similarly, luxS virulence gene was found only in S. mucosae and Bisgaardia hudsonensis strains. Since there are only 2 genomes available in the NCBI genome database, further studies on isolation of S. mucosae needs to be carried out to identify its epidemiology and pathogenesis so as to develop better diagnostic assays and vaccines.

Whole genome sequencing and comparative genomics of Mycobacterium orygis isolated from different animal hosts to identify specific diagnostic markers.

Introduction: Mycobacterium orygis, a member of MTBC has been identified in higher numbers in the recent years from animals of South Asia. Comparative genomics of this important zoonotic pathogen is not available which can provide data on the molecular difference between other MTBC members. Hence, the present study was carried out to isolate, whole genome sequence M. orygis from different animal species (cattle, buffalo and deer) and to identify molecular marker for the differentiation of M. orygis from other MTBC members. Methods: Isolation and whole genome sequencing of M. orygis was carried out for 9 samples (4 cattle, 4 deer and 1 buffalo) died due to tuberculosis. Comparative genomics employing 53 genomes (44 from database and 9 newly sequenced) was performed to identify SNPs, spoligotype, pangenome structure, and region of difference. Results: M. orygis was isolated from water buffalo and sambar deer which is the first of its kind report worldwide. Comparative pangenomics of all M. orygis strains worldwide (n= 53) showed a closed pangenome structure which is also reported for the first time. Pairwise SNP between TANUVAS_2, TANUVAS_4, TANUVAS_5, TANUVAS_7 and NIRTAH144 was less than 15 indicating that the same M. orygis strain may be the cause for infection. Region of difference prediction showed absence of RD7, RD8, RD9, RD10, RD12, RD301, RD315 in all the M. orygis analyzed. SNPs in virulence gene, PE35 was found to be unique to M. orygis which can be used as marker for identification. Conclusion: The present study is yet another supportive evidence that M. orygis is more prevalent among animals in South Asia and the zoonotic potential of this organism needs to be evaluated.

Comparative genomics of Trueperella pyogenes available in the genome database reveals multidrug resistance genomic islands.

OBJECTIVE: An opportunistic pathogen, Trueperella pyogenes can infect cattle, buffalo, pig, goat, cat, dog, forest musk deer, etc., affecting various organs. The aim of this study was to identify the multidrug resistance genomic islands of T. pyogenes genomes available in NCBI database and also in the recently isolated strain TN_CUL_2020. METHODS: The strain TN_CUL_2020 isolated from swine lung abscess was sequenced by Illumina platform, and all the available T. pyogenes genome in NCBI database was retrieved for the comparative analysis. The ABRicate searches was used to identify antimicrobial resistance genes, and genomic islands (GIs) were predicted using IslandViewer 4. RESULTS: The strains SH01, SH02, and TP1 were predicted with maximum number of drug resistance genes. Genomic islands identified had multidrug resistance genes along with the class I integron and/or IS6100 elements in SH01, SH02, TP1. Composite transposons of IS6100 were noted in T2849, T4479, and TP3 intercalating tet(33) resistance genes. Several strains were predicted with phage elements, type IV secretion system, the toxin-antitoxin system in the GIs. CONCLUSION: Swine strains SH01, SH02 were predicted with multidrug resistance genes along with class I integrons. The presence of class I integrons, insertional elements, type IV secretion system, toxin-antitoxin system, and phage elements may aid in the horizontal transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes.

Genome Sequencing and Comparative Genomics of Indian Isolates of Brucella melitensis.

Brucella melitensis causes small ruminant brucellosis and a zoonotic pathogen prevalent worldwide. Whole genome phylogeny of all available B. melitensis genomes (n = 355) revealed that all Indian isolates (n = 16) clustered in the East Mediterranean lineage except the ADMAS-GI strain. Pangenome analysis indicated the presence of limited accessory genomes with few clades showing specific gene presence/absence pattern. A total of 43 virulence genes were predicted in all the Indian strains of B. melitensis except 2007BM-1 (ricA and wbkA are absent). Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis indicated all except one Indian strain (ADMAS-GI) falling into sequence type (ST 8). In comparison with MLST, core genome phylogeny indicated two major clusters (>70% bootstrap support values) among Indian strains. Clusters with <70% bootstrap support values represent strains with diverse evolutionary origins present among animal and human hosts. Genetic relatedness among animal (sheep and goats) and human strains with 100% bootstrap values shows its zoonotic transfer potentiality. SNP-based analysis indicated similar clustering to that of core genome phylogeny. Among the Indian strains, the highest number of unique SNPs (112 SNPs) were shared by a node that involved three strains from Tamil Nadu. The node SNPs involved several peptidase genes like U32, M16 inactive domain protein, clp protease family protein, and M23 family protein and mostly represented non-synonymous (NS) substitutions. Vaccination has been followed in several parts of the world to prevent small ruminant brucellosis but not in India. Comparison of Indian strains with vaccine strains showed that M5 is genetically closer to most of the Indian strains than Rev.1 strain. The presence of most of the virulence genes among all Indian strains and conserved core genome compositions suggest the use of any circulating strain/genotypes for the development of a vaccine candidate for small ruminant brucellosis in India.

Advances in therapeutic and managemental approaches of bovine mastitis: a comprehensive review.

Mastitis (intramammary inflammation) caused by infectious pathogens is still considered a devastating condition of dairy animals affecting animal welfare as well as economically incurring huge losses to the dairy industry by means of decreased production performance and increased culling rates. Bovine mastitis is the inflammation of the mammary glands/udder of bovines, caused by bacterial pathogens, in most cases. Routine diagnosis is based on clinical and subclinical forms of the disease. This underlines the significance of early and rapid identification/detection of etiological agents at the farm level, for which several diagnostic techniques have been developed. Therapeutic regimens such as antibiotics, immunotherapy, bacteriocins, bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, probiotics, stem cell therapy, native secretory factors, nutritional, dry cow and lactation therapy, genetic selection, herbs, and nanoparticle technology-based therapy have been evaluated for their efficacy in the treatment of mastitis. Even though several strategies have been developed over the years for the purpose of managing both clinical and subclinical forms of mastitis, all of them lacked the efficacy to eliminate the associated etiological agent when used as a monotherapy. Further, research has to be directed towards the development of new therapeutic agents/techniques that can both replace conventional techniques and also solve the problem of emerging antibiotic resistance. The objective of the present review is to describe the etiological agents, pathogenesis, and diagnosis in brief along with an extensive discussion on the advances in the treatment and management of mastitis, which would help safeguard the health of dairy animals.

Bovine brucellosis - a comprehensive review.

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease of great animal welfare and economic implications worldwide known since ancient times. The emergence of brucellosis in new areas as well as transmission of brucellosis from wild and domestic animals is of great significance in terms of new epidemiological dimensions. Brucellosis poses a major public health threat by the consumption of non-pasteurized milk and milk products produced by unhygienic dairy farms in endemic areas. Regular and meticulous surveillance is essentially required to determine the true picture of brucellosis especially in areas with continuous high prevalence. Additionally, international migration of humans, animals and trade of animal products has created a challenge for disease spread and diagnosis in non-endemic areas. Isolation and identification remain the gold standard test, which requires expertise. The advancement in diagnostic strategies coupled with screening of newly introduced animals is warranted to control the disease. Of note, the diagnostic value of miRNAs for appropriate detection of B. abortus infection has been shown. The most widely used vaccine strains to protect against Brucella infection and related abortions in cattle are strain 19 and RB51. Moreover, it is very important to note that no vaccine, which is highly protective, safe and effective is available either for bovines or human beings. Research results encourage the use of bacteriophage lysates in treatment of bovine brucellosis. One Health approach can aid in control of this disease, both in animals and man.

Role of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) in the virulence of SARS-CoV-2 and its mitigation strategies for the development of vaccines and immunotherapies to counter COVID-19.

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has become a global threat and death tolls are increasing worldwide. The SARS-CoV-2 though shares similarities with SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, immunopathology of the novel virus is not understood properly. Previous reports from SARS and MERS-CoV documents that preexisting, non-neutralizing or poorly neutralizing antibodies developed as a result of vaccine or infection enhance subsequent infection, a phenomenon called as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). Since immunotherapy has been implicated for COVID-19 treatment and vaccine is under development, due consideration has to be provided on ADE to prevent untoward reactions. ADE mitigation strategies like the development of vaccine or immunotherapeutics targeting receptor binding motif can be designed to minimize ADE of SARS-CoV-2 since full-length protein-based approach can lead to ADE as reported in MERS-CoV. The present mini-review aims to address the phenomenon of ADE of SARS-CoV-2 through the lessons learned from SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV and ways to mitigate them so as to develop better vaccines and immunotherapeutics against SARS-CoV-2.