Mucosal and systemic neutralizing antibodies to norovirus induced in infant mice orally inoculated with recombinant rotaviruses.

Rotaviruses (RVs) preferentially replicate in the small intestine and frequently cause severe diarrheal disease, and the following enteric infection generally induces variable levels of protective systemic and mucosal immune responses in humans and other animals. Rhesus rotavirus (RRV) is a simian RV that was previously used as a human RV vaccine and has been extensively studied in mice. Although RRV replicates poorly in the suckling mouse intestine, infection induces a robust and protective antibody response. The recent availability of plasmid only-based RV reverse genetics systems has enabled the generation of recombinant RVs expressing foreign proteins. However, recombinant RVs have not yet been experimentally tested as potential vaccine vectors to immunize against other gastrointestinal pathogens in vivo. This is a newly available opportunity because several live-attenuated RV vaccines are already widely administered to infants and young children worldwide. To explore the feasibility of using RV as a dual vaccine vector, we rescued replication-competent recombinant RRVs harboring bicistronic gene segment 7 that encodes the native RV nonstructural protein 3 (NSP3) protein and a human norovirus (HuNoV) VP1 protein or P domain from the predominant genotype GII.4. The rescued viruses expressed HuNoV VP1 or P protein in infected cells in vitro and elicited systemic and local antibody responses to HuNoV and RRV following oral infection of suckling mice. Serum IgG and fecal IgA from infected suckling mice bound to and neutralized both RRV and HuNoV. These findings have encouraging practical implications for the design of RV-based next-generation multivalent enteric vaccines to target HuNoV and other human enteric pathogens.

N-Glycosylation of Rotavirus NSP4 Protein Affects Viral Replication and Pathogenesis.

Rotavirus (RV), the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, carries a high economic and health burden worldwide. RV encodes six structural proteins and six nonstructural proteins (NSPs) that play different roles in viral replication. NSP4, a multifunctional protein involved in various viral replication processes, has two conserved N-glycosylation sites; however, the role of glycans remains elusive. Here, we used recombinant viruses generated by a reverse genetics system to determine the role of NSP4 N-glycosylation during viral replication and pathogenesis. The growth rate of recombinant viruses that lost one glycosylation site was as high as that of the wild-type virus. However, a recombinant virus that lost both glycosylation sites (glycosylation-defective virus) showed attenuated replication in cultured cell lines. Specifically, replications of glycosylation-defective virus in MA104 and HT29 cells were 10- and 100,000-fold lower, respectively, than that of the wild-type, suggesting that N-glycosylation of NSP4 plays a critical role in RV replication. The glycosylation-defective virus showed NSP4 mislocalization, delay of cytosolic Ca2+ elevation, and less viroplasm formation in MA104 cells; however, these impairments were not observed in HT29 cells. Further analysis revealed that assembly of glycosylation-defective virus was severely impaired in HT29 cells but not in MA104 cells, suggesting that RV replication mechanism is highly cell type dependent. In vivo mouse experiments also showed that the glycosylation-defective virus was less pathogenic than the wild-type virus. Taken together, the data suggest that N-glycosylation of NSP4 plays a vital role in viral replication and pathogenicity. IMPORTANCE Rotavirus is the main cause of gastroenteritis in young children and infants worldwide, contributing to 128,500 deaths each year. Here, we used a reverse genetics approach to examine the role of NSP4 N-glycosylation. An N-glycosylation-defective virus showed attenuated and cell-type-dependent replication in vitro. In addition, mice infected with the N-glycosylation-defective virus had less severe diarrhea than mice infected with the wild type. These results suggest that N-glycosylation affects viral replication and pathogenesis. Considering the reduced pathogenicity in vivo and the high propagation rate in MA104 cells, this glycosylation-defective virus could be an ideal live attenuated vaccine candidate.

The nonstructural p17 protein of a fusogenic bat-borne reovirus regulates viral replication in virus species- and host-specific manners.

Nelson Bay orthoreovirus (NBV), a member of the family Reoviridae, genus Orthoreovirus, is a bat-borne virus that causes respiratory diseases in humans. NBV encodes two unique nonstructural proteins, fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) protein and p17 protein, in the S1 gene segment. FAST induces cell-cell fusion between infected cells and neighboring cells and the fusogenic activity is required for efficient viral replication. However, the function of p17 in the virus cycle is not fully understood. Here, various p17 mutant viruses including p17-deficient viruses were generated by a reverse genetics system for NBV. The results demonstrated that p17 is not essential for viral replication and does not play an important role in viral pathogenesis. On the other hand, NBV p17 regulated viral replication in a bat cell line but not in other human and animal cell lines. Nuclear localization of p17 is associated with the regulation of NBV replication in bat cells. We also found that p17 dramatically enhances the cell-cell fusion activity of NBV FAST protein for efficient replication in bat cells. Furthermore, we found that a protein homologue of NBV p17 from another bat-borne orthoreovirus, but not those of avian orthoreovirus or baboon orthoreovirus, also supported efficient viral replication in bat cells using a p17-deficient virus-based complementation approach. These results provide critical insights into the functioning of the unique replication machinery of bat-borne viruses in their natural hosts.

Development of an entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system for 12-segmented double-stranded RNA viruses.

The family Reoviridae is a nonenveloped virus group with a double-stranded (ds) RNA genome comprising 9 to 12 segments. In the family Reoviridae, the genera Cardoreovirus, Phytoreovirus, Seadornavirus, Mycoreovirus, and Coltivirus contain virus species having 12-segmented dsRNA genomes. Reverse genetics systems used to generate recombinant infectious viruses are powerful tools for investigating viral gene function and for developing vaccines and therapeutic interventions. Generally, this methodology has been utilized for Reoviridae viruses such as Orthoreovirus, Orbivirus, Cypovirus, and Rotavirus, which have genomes with 10 or 11 segments, respectively. However, no reverse genetics system has been developed for Reoviridae viruses with a genome harboring 12 segments. Herein, we describe development of an entire plasmid-based reverse genetics system for Tarumizu tick virus (TarTV) (genus Coltivirus, family Reoviridae), which has a genome of 12 segments. Recombinant TarTVs were generated by transfection of 12 cloned complementary DNAs encoding the TarTV genome into baby hamster kidney cells expressing T7 RNA polymerase. Using this technology, we generated VP12 mutant viruses and demonstrated that VP12 is an N-glycosylated protein. We also generated a reporter virus expressing the HiBiT-tagged VP8 protein. This reverse genetics system will increase our understanding of not only the biology of the genus Coltivirus but also the replication machinery of the family Reoviridae.

The Role of the VP4 Attachment Protein in Rotavirus Host Range Restriction in an In Vivo Suckling Mouse Model.

The basis for rotavirus (RV) host range restriction (HRR) is not fully understood but is likely multigenic. RV genes encoding VP3, VP4, NSP1, NSP2, NSP3, and NSP4 have been associated with HRR in various studies. With the exception of NSP1, little is known about the relative contribution of the other RV genes to HRR. VP4 has been linked to HRR because it functions as the RV cell attachment protein, but its actual role in HRR has not been fully assessed. We generated a collection of recombinant RVs (rRVs) in an isogenic murine-like RV genetic background, harboring either heterologous or homologous VP4 genes from simian, bovine, porcine, human, and murine RV strains, and characterized these rRVs in vitro and in vivo. We found that a murine-like rRV encoding a simian VP4 was shed, spread to uninoculated littermates, and induced diarrhea comparably to rRV harboring a murine VP4. However, rRVs carrying VP4s from both bovine and porcine RVs had reduced diarrhea, but no change in fecal shedding was observed. Both diarrhea and shedding were reduced when VP4 originated from a human RV strain. rRVs harboring VP4s from human or bovine RVs did not transmit to uninoculated littermates. We also generated two rRVs harboring reciprocal chimeric murine or bovine VP4. Both chimeras replicated and caused disease as efficiently as the parental strain with a fully murine VP4. These data suggest that the genetic origin of VP4 partially modulates HRR in the suckling mouse and that both the VP8* and VP5* domains independently contribute to pathogenesis and transmission. IMPORTANCE Human group A rotaviruses (RVs) remain the most important cause of severe acute gastroenteritis among infants and young children worldwide despite the introduction of several safe and effective live attenuated vaccines. The lack of knowledge regarding fundamental aspects of RV biology, such as the genetic basis of host range restriction (HRR), has made it difficult to predictively and efficiently design improved, next-generation live attenuated rotavirus vaccines. Here, we engineered a collection of VP4 monoreassortant RVs to systematically explore the role of VP4 in replication, pathogenicity, and spread, as measures of HRR, in a suckling mouse model. The genetic and mechanistic bases of HRR have substantial clinical relevance given that this restriction forms the basis of attenuation for several replication-competent human RV vaccines. In addition, a better understanding of RV pathogenesis and the determinants of RV spread is likely to enhance our ability to improve antiviral drug and therapy development.

Generation of recombinant rotaviruses encoding a split NanoLuc peptide tag.

Recombinant viruses expressing fluorescent or luminescent reporter proteins are used to quantitate and visualize viral replication and transmission. Here, we used a split NanoLuc luciferase (NLuc) system comprising large LgBiT and small HiBiT peptide fragments to generate stable reporter rotaviruses (RVs). Reporter RVs expressing NSP1-HiBiT fusion protein were generated by placing an 11 amino acid HiBiT peptide tag at the C-terminus of the intact simian RV NSP1 open reading frame or truncated human RV NSP1 open reading frame. Virus-infected cell lysates exhibited NLuc activity that paralleled virus replication. The antiviral activity of neutralizing antibodies and antiviral reagents against the recombinant HiBiT reporter viruses were monitored by measuring reductions in NLuc expression. These findings demonstrate that the HiBiT reporter RV systems are powerful tools for studying the viral life cycle and pathogenesis, and a robust platform for developing novel antiviral drugs.

Generation of Genetically RGD σ1-Modified Oncolytic Reovirus That Enhances JAM-A-Independent Infection of Tumor Cells.

Mammalian reovirus (MRV) strain type 3 Dearing (T3D) is a naturally occurring oncolytic virus that has been developed as a potential cancer therapeutic. However, MRV treatment cannot be applied to cancer cells expressing low levels of junctional adhesion molecule A (JAM-A), which is the entry receptor of MRV. In this study, we developed a reverse genetics system for MRV strain T3D-L, which showed high oncolytic potency. To modify the cell tropism of MRV, an arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) peptide with an affinity to integrin was inserted at the C terminus or loop structures of the viral cell attachment protein σ1. The recombinant RGD σ1-modified viruses induced remarkable cell lysis in human cancer cell lines with marginal JAM-A expression and in JAM-A knockout cancer cell lines generated by a CRISPR/Cas9 system. Pretreatment of cells with anti-integrin antibody decreased cell death caused by the RGD σ1-modified virus, suggesting the infection to the cells was via a specific interaction with integrin αV. By using mouse models, we assessed virulence of the RGD σ1-modified viruses in vivo This system will open new avenues for the use of genetically modified oncolytic MRV for use as a cancer therapy.IMPORTANCE Oncolytic viruses kill tumors without affecting normal cells. A variety of oncolytic viruses are used as cancer therapeutics. Mammalian reovirus (MRV), which belongs to the genus Orthoreovirus, family Reoviridae, is one such natural oncolytic virus. The anticancer effects of MRV are being evaluated in clinical trials. Unlike other oncolytic viruses, MRV has not been genetically modified for use as a cancer therapeutic in clinical trials. Here, we used a reverse genetic approach to introduce an integrin-affinity peptide sequence into the MRV cell attachment protein σ1 to alter the natural tropism of the virus. The recombinant viruses were able to infect cancer cell lines expressing very low levels of the MRV entry receptor, junctional adhesion molecule A (JAM-A), and cause tumor cell death while maintaining its original tropism via JAM-A. This is a novel report of a genetically modified oncolytic MRV by introducing a peptide sequence into σ1.

Reverse Genetics System for a Human Group A Rotavirus.

Group A rotavirus (RV) is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide. Recently, we established an entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system for simian RV strain SA11. Although that system was robust enough to generate reassortant RVs, including human RV gene segments, and enabled better understanding of the biological differences between animal and human RV strains, a complete reverse genetics system for human RV strains is desirable. Here, we established a plasmid-based reverse genetics system for G4P[8] human RV strain Odelia. This technology was used to generate a panel of monoreassortant viruses between human and simian RV strains for all of the 11 gene segments demonstrating full compatibility between human and simian RV strains. Furthermore, we generated recombinant viruses lacking the C-terminal region of the viral nonstructural protein NSP1 and used it to define the biological function of the interaction between NSP1 and its target protein ß-transducin repeat-containing protein (ß-TrCP) during viral replication. While the NSP1 truncation mutant lacking the C-terminal 13 amino acids displayed lower ß-TrCP degradation activity, it replicated as efficiently as the wild-type virus. In contrast, the truncation mutant lacking the C-terminal 166 amino acids of NSP1 replicated poorly, suggesting that the C-terminal region of NSP1 plays critical roles in viral replication. The system reported here will allow generation of engineered recombinant virus harboring desired mutations, increase our understanding of the molecular biology of human RV, and facilitate development of novel therapeutics and vaccines.IMPORTANCE Reverse genetics, an approach used to generate viruses from cloned cDNA, has increased our understanding of virus biology. Worldwide research led to the development of an entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system for the simian RV laboratory strain. Although the technique allows generation of gene-modified recombinant RVs, biological differences between animal and human RVs mean that reverse genetics systems for human RV strains are still needed. Here, we describe a reverse genetics system for the high-yield human RV strain Odelia, which replicates efficiently and is suitable for in vitro molecular studies. Monoreassortant viruses between simian and human RV strains and NSP1 mutant viruses generated by the rescue system enabled study of the biological functions of viral gene segments. This human RV reverse genetics system will facilitate study of RV biology and development of vaccines and vectors.

Reverse Genetics Approach for Developing Rotavirus Vaccine Candidates Carrying VP4 and VP7 Genes Cloned from Clinical Isolates of Human Rotavirus.

Species A rotaviruses (RVs) are a leading cause of severe acute gastroenteritis in infants and children younger than 5 years. Currently available RV vaccines were adapted from wild-type RV strains by serial passage of cultured cells or by reassortment between human and animal RV strains. These traditional methods require large-scale screening and genotyping to obtain vaccine candidates. Reverse genetics is a tractable, rapid, and reproducible approach to generating recombinant RV vaccine candidates carrying any VP4 and VP7 genes that provide selected antigenicity. Here, we developed a vaccine platform by generating recombinant RVs carrying VP4 (P[4] and P[8]), VP7 (G1, G2, G3, G8, and G9), and/or VP6 genes cloned from human RV clinical samples using the simian RV SA11 strain (G3P[2]) as a backbone. Neutralization assays using monoclonal antibodies and murine antisera revealed that recombinant VP4 and VP7 monoreassortant viruses exhibited altered antigenicity. However, replication of VP4 monoreassortant viruses was severely impaired. Generation of recombinant RVs harboring a chimeric VP4 protein for SA11 and human RV gene components revealed that the VP8* fragment was responsible for efficient infectivity of recombinant RVs. Although this system must be improved because the yield of vaccine viruses directly affects vaccine manufacturing costs, reverse genetics requires less time than traditional methods and enables rapid production of safe and effective vaccine candidates.IMPORTANCE Although vaccines have reduced global RV-associated hospitalization and mortality over the past decade, the multisegmented genome of RVs allows reassortment of VP4 and VP7 genes from different RV species and strains. The evolutionary dynamics of novel RV genotypes and their constellations have led to great genomic and antigenic diversity. The reverse genetics system is a powerful tool for manipulating RV genes, thereby controlling viral antigenicity, growth capacity, and pathogenicity. Here, we generated recombinant simian RVs (strain SA11) carrying heterologous VP4 and VP7 genes cloned from clinical isolates and showed that VP4- or VP7-substituted chimeric viruses can be used for antigenic characterization of RV outer capsid proteins and as improved seed viruses for vaccine production.

Cell-cell fusion induced by reovirus FAST proteins enhances replication and pathogenicity of non-enveloped dsRNA viruses.

Fusogenic reoviruses encode fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) protein, which induces cell-cell fusion. FAST protein is the only known fusogenic protein in non-enveloped viruses, and its role in virus replication is not yet known. We generated replication-competent, FAST protein-deficient pteropine orthoreovirus and demonstrated that FAST protein was not essential for viral replication, but enhanced viral replication in the early phase of infection. Addition of recombinant FAST protein enhanced replication of FAST-deficient virus and other non-fusogenic viruses in a fusion-dependent and FAST-species-independent manner. In a mouse model, replication and pathogenicity of FAST-deficient virus were severely impaired relative to wild-type virus, indicating that FAST protein is a major determinant of the high pathogenicity of fusogenic reovirus. FAST-deficient virus also conferred effective protection against challenge with lethal homologous virus strains in mice. Our results demonstrate a novel role of a viral fusogenic protein and the existence of a cell-cell fusion-dependent replication system in non-enveloped viruses.

The Detection of Rotavirus Antigenemia by Immunochromatographic Kits: a Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Acute gastroenteritis is the most common cause of illness and death in infants and young children worldwide. Rotaviruses (RVs) are the major viruses that cause acute gastroenteritis in young children, especially in developing countries in Asia and Africa. METHODS: The presence of rotavirus antigens in sera of four unvaccinated pediatric patients, aged between 4 and 6 years with severe diarrhea and dehydration, were detected by using three immunochromatographic (IC) kits. In addition, the presence of anti-rotavirus IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies and their concentrations in patient sera were also determined by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). RESULTS: All three kits could detect rotavirus antigen in patient sera with different intensity of the test lines. When patient sera were pretreated with anti-VP6 rotavirus mouse monoclonal antibody prior to testing, the rotavirus positive test lines disappeared, suggesting that all patient sera contained VP6 protein antigen of rotavirus. Assessment of antibody concentration in these patient sera revealed that all patient sera contained IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies against rotavirus antigen at different concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The sensitivity of rotavirus protein detection in the patient sera of one IC kit brand was comparable to those of the EIA, suggesting this IC kit could be an alternative screening method for rapid diagnosis of rotavirus infection.

In Vivo Live Imaging of Oncolytic Mammalian Orthoreovirus Expressing NanoLuc Luciferase in Tumor Xenograft Mice.

Wild-type mammalian reoviruses (MRVs) have been evaluated as oncolytic agents against various cancers; however, genetic modification methods for improving MRV agents have not been exploited fully. In the present study, using MRV strain T1L, we generated a reporter MRV that expresses a NanoLuc luciferase (NLuc) gene and used it for noninvasive imaging of MRV infection in tumor xenograft mice. NLuc and a P2A self-cleaving peptide gene cassette were placed upstream of the L1 gene open reading frame to enable bicistronic expression of NLuc and the L1 gene product. BALB/c nude mice intranasally infected with MRV expressing NLuc (rsT1L-NLuc) displayed bioluminescent signals in the chest area at 4 days postinfection (dpi), which is consistent with natural MRV infection in the lung. Furthermore, to monitor tumor-selective infection by MRV, nude mice bearing human cancer xenografts were infected intravenously with rsT1L-NLuc. Bioluminescent signals were detected in tumors as early as 3 dpi and persisted for 2 months. The results demonstrate the utility of an autonomous replicating reporter MRV for noninvasive live imaging of replicating oncolytic MRV agents.IMPORTANCE Engineering of recombinant MRV for improved oncolytic activity has not yet been achieved due to difficulty in generating autonomous replicating MRV harboring transgenes. Here, we constructed a reporter MRV that can be used to monitor cancer-selective infection by oncolytic MRV in a mouse model. Among the numerous oncolytic viruses, MRV has an advantage in that the wild-type virus shows marked oncolytic activity in patients without any notable adverse effects. The reporter MRV developed herein will open avenues to the development of recombinant MRV vectors armed with anticancer transgenes.

Development of Stable Rotavirus Reporter Expression Systems.

Engineered recombinant viruses expressing reporter genes have been developed for real-time monitoring of replication and for mass screening of antiviral inhibitors. Recently, we reported using a reverse genetics system to develop the first recombinant reporter rotaviruses (RVs) that expressed NanoLuc (NLuc) luciferase. Here, we describe a strategy for developing stable reporter RVs expressing luciferase and green or red fluorescent proteins. The reporter genes were inserted into the open reading frame of NSP1 and expressed as a fusion with an NSP1 peptide consisting of amino acids 1 to 27. The stability of foreign genes within the reporter RV strains harboring a shorter chimeric NSP1-reporter gene was greater than that of those in the original reporter RV strain, independent of the transgene inserted. The improved reporter RV was used to screen for neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Sequence analysis of escape mutants from one MAb clone (clone 29) identified an amino acid substitution (arginine to glycine) at position 441 in the VP4 protein, which resides within neutralizing epitope 5-1 in the VP5* fragment. Furthermore, to express a native reporter protein lacking NSP1 amino acids 1 to 27, the 5'- and 3'-terminal region sequences were modified to restore the predicted secondary RNA structure of the NSP1-reporter chimeric gene. These data demonstrate the utility of reporter RVs for live monitoring of RV infections and also suggest further applications (e.g., RV vaccine vectors, which can induce mucosal immunity against intestinal pathogens).IMPORTANCE Development of reporter RVs has been hampered by the lack of comprehensive reverse genetics systems. Recently, we developed a plasmid-based reverse genetics system that enables generation of reporter RVs expressing NLuc luciferase. The prototype reporter RV had some disadvantages (i.e., the transgene was unstable and was expressed as a fusion protein with a partial NSP1 peptide); however, the improved reporter RV overcomes these problems through modification of the untranslated region of the reporter-NSP1 chimeric gene. This strategy for generating stable reporter RVs could be expanded to diverse transgenes and be used to develop RV transduction vectors. Also, the data improve our understanding of the importance of 5'- and 3'-terminal sequences in terms of genome replication, assembly, and packaging.

Entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system for rotaviruses.

Rotaviruses (RVs) are highly important pathogens that cause severe diarrhea among infants and young children worldwide. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying RV replication and pathogenesis has been hampered by the lack of an entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system. In this study, we describe the recovery of recombinant RVs entirely from cloned cDNAs. The strategy requires coexpression of a small transmembrane protein that accelerates cell-to-cell fusion and vaccinia virus capping enzyme. We used this system to obtain insights into the process by which RV nonstructural protein NSP1 subverts host innate immune responses. By insertion into the NSP1 gene segment, we recovered recombinant viruses that encode split-green fluorescent protein-tagged NSP1 and NanoLuc luciferase. This technology will provide opportunities for studying RV biology and foster development of RV vaccines and therapeutics.

Reverse Genetics System Demonstrates that Rotavirus Nonstructural Protein NSP6 Is Not Essential for Viral Replication in Cell Culture.

The use of overlapping open reading frames (ORFs) to synthesize more than one unique protein from a single mRNA has been described for several viruses. Segment 11 of the rotavirus genome encodes two nonstructural proteins, NSP5 and NSP6. The NSP6 ORF is present in the vast majority of rotavirus strains, and therefore the NSP6 protein would be expected to have a function in viral replication. However, there is no direct evidence of its function or requirement in the viral replication cycle yet. Here, taking advantage of a recently established plasmid-only-based reverse genetics system that allows rescue of recombinant rotaviruses entirely from cloned cDNAs, we generated NSP6-deficient viruses to directly address its significance in the viral replication cycle. Viable recombinant NSP6-deficient viruses could be engineered. Single-step growth curves and plaque formation of the NSP6-deficient viruses confirmed that NSP6 expression is of limited significance for RVA replication in cell culture, although the NSP6 protein seemed to promote efficient virus growth.IMPORTANCE Rotavirus is one of the most important pathogens of severe diarrhea in young children worldwide. The rotavirus genome, consisting of 11 segments of double-stranded RNA, encodes six structural proteins (VP1 to VP4, VP6, and VP7) and six nonstructural proteins (NSP1 to NSP6). Although specific functions have been ascribed to each of the 12 viral proteins, the role of NSP6 in the viral replication cycle remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that the NSP6 protein is not essential for viral replication in cell culture by using a recently developed plasmid-only-based reverse genetics system. This reverse genetics approach will be successfully applied to answer questions of great interest regarding the roles of rotaviral proteins in replication and pathogenicity, which can hardly be addressed by conventional approaches.

Reverse Genetics for Fusogenic Bat-Borne Orthoreovirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Humans: Role of Outer Capsid Protein σC in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis.

Nelson Bay orthoreoviruses (NBVs) are members of the fusogenic orthoreoviruses and possess 10-segmented double-stranded RNA genomes. NBV was first isolated from a fruit bat in Australia more than 40 years ago, but it was not associated with any disease. However, several NBV strains have been recently identified as causative agents for respiratory tract infections in humans. Isolation of these pathogenic bat reoviruses from patients suggests that NBVs have evolved to propagate in humans in the form of zoonosis. To date, no strategy has been developed to rescue infectious viruses from cloned cDNA for any member of the fusogenic orthoreoviruses. In this study, we report the development of a plasmid-based reverse genetics system free of helper viruses and independent of any selection for NBV isolated from humans with acute respiratory infection. cDNAs corresponding to each of the 10 full-length RNA gene segments of NBV were cotransfected into culture cells expressing T7 RNA polymerase, and viable NBV was isolated using a plaque assay. The growth kinetics and cell-to-cell fusion activity of recombinant strains, rescued using the reverse genetics system, were indistinguishable from those of native strains. We used the reverse genetics system to generate viruses deficient in the cell attachment protein σC to define the biological function of this protein in the viral life cycle. Our results with σC-deficient viruses demonstrated that σC is dispensable for cell attachment in several cell lines, including murine fibroblast L929 cells but not in human lung epithelial A549 cells, and plays a critical role in viral pathogenesis. We also used the system to rescue a virus that expresses a yellow fluorescent protein. The reverse genetics system developed in this study can be applied to study the propagation and pathogenesis of pathogenic NBVs and in the generation of recombinant NBVs for future vaccines and therapeutics.

Reverse Genetics of Murine Rotavirus: A Comparative Analysis of the Wild-Type and Cell-Culture-Adapted Murine Rotavirus VP4 in Replication and Virulence in Neonatal Mice.

Small-animal models and reverse genetics systems are powerful tools for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying viral replication, virulence, and interaction with the host immune response in vivo. Rotavirus (RV) causes acute gastroenteritis in many young animals and infants worldwide. Murine RV replicates efficiently in the intestines of inoculated suckling pups, causing diarrhea, and spreads efficiently to uninoculated littermates. Because RVs derived from human and other non-mouse animal species do not replicate efficiently in mice, murine RVs are uniquely useful in probing the viral and host determinants of efficient replication and pathogenesis in a species-matched mouse model. Previously, we established an optimized reverse genetics protocol for RV and successfully generated a murine-like RV rD6/2-2g strain that replicates well in both cultured cell lines and in the intestines of inoculated pups. However, rD6/2-2g possesses three out of eleven gene segments derived from simian RV strains, and these three heterologous segments may attenuate viral pathogenicity in vivo. Here, we rescued the first recombinant RV with all 11 gene segments of murine RV origin. Using this virus as a genetic background, we generated a panel of recombinant murine RVs with either N-terminal VP8* or C-terminal VP5* regions chimerized between a cell-culture-adapted murine ETD strain and a non-tissue-culture-adapted murine EW strain and compared the diarrhea rate and fecal RV shedding in pups. The recombinant viruses with VP5* domains derived from the murine EW strain showed slightly more fecal shedding than those with VP5* domains from the ETD strain. The newly characterized full-genome murine RV will be a useful tool for dissecting virus-host interactions and for studying the mechanism of pathogenesis in neonatal mice.

A Viral Protein 4-Based Trivalent Nanoparticle Vaccine Elicited High and Broad Immune Responses and Protective Immunity against the Predominant Rotaviruses.

The current live rotavirus (RV) vaccines show reduced effectiveness in developing countries, calling for vaccine strategies with improved efficacy and safety. We generated pseudovirus nanoparticles (PVNPs) that display multiple ectodomains of RV viral protein 4 (VP4), named S-VP4e, as a nonreplicating RV vaccine candidate. The RV spike protein VP4s that bind host receptors and facilitate viral entry are excellent targets for vaccination. In this study, we developed scalable methods to produce three S-VP4e PVNPs, each displaying the VP4e antigens from one of the three predominant P[8], P[4], and P[6] human RVs (HRVs). These PVNPs were recognized by selected neutralizing VP4-specific monoclonal antibodies, bound glycan receptors, attached to permissive HT-29 cells, and underwent cleavage by trypsin between VP8* and VP5*. 3D PVNP models were constructed to understand their structural features. A trivalent PVNP vaccine containing the three S-VP4e PVNPs elicited high and well-balanced VP4e-specific antibody titers in mice directed against the three predominant HRV P types. The resulting antisera neutralized the three HRV prototypes at high titers; greater than 4-fold higher than the neutralizing responses induced by a trivalent vaccine consisting of the S60-VP8* PVNPs. Finally, the trivalent S-VP4e PVNP vaccine provided 90-100% protection against diarrhea caused by HRV challenge. Our data supports the trivalent S-VP4e PVNPs as a promising nonreplicating HRV vaccine candidate for parenteral delivery to circumvent the suboptimal immunization issues of all present live HRV vaccines. The established PVNP-permissive cell and PVNP-glycan binding assays will be instrumental for further investigating HRV-host cell interactions and neutralizing effects of VP4-specific antibodies and antivirals.

Viroporin activity from rotavirus nonstructural protein 4 induces intercellular calcium waves that contribute to pathogenesis.

Acute gastroenteritis remains the second leading cause of death among children under the age of 5 worldwide. While enteric viruses are the most common etiology, the drivers of their virulence remain incompletely understood. We recently found that cells infected with rotavirus, the most prevalent enteric virus in infants and young children, initiate hundreds of intercellular calcium waves that enhance both fluid secretion and viral spread. Understanding how rotavirus triggers intercellular calcium waves may allow us to design safer, more effective vaccines and therapeutics, but we still lack a mechanistic understanding of this process. In this study, we used existing virulent and attenuated rotavirus strains, as well as reverse engineered recombinants, to investigate the role of rotavirus nonstructural protein 4 (NSP4) in intercellular calcium wave induction using in vitro , organoid, and in vivo model systems. We found that the capacity to induce purinergic intercellular calcium waves (ICWs) segregated with NSP4 in both simian and murine-like rotavirus backgrounds, and NSP4 expression alone was sufficient to induce ICWs. NSP4's ability to function as a viroporin, which conducts calcium out of the endoplasmic reticulum, was necessary for ICW induction. Furthermore, viroporin activity and the resulting ICWs drove transcriptional changes indicative of innate immune activation, which were lost upon attenuation of viroporin function. Multiple aspects of RV disease severity in vivo correlated with the generation of ICWs, identifying a critical link between viroporin function, intercellular calcium waves, and enteric viral virulence.

Natural infection of cynomolgus monkeys with dengue virus occurs in epidemic cycles in the Philippines.

To investigate the potential role of non-human primates (NHPs) in a dengue virus (DENV) epidemic, we conducted serological and genomic studies using plasma samples collected from 100 cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) in an animal breeding facility in the Philippines. An ELISA revealed 21 monkeys with a positive IgM reaction and 19 positive for IgG. Five of the monkeys were positive for both IgM and IgG. Of the 21 IgM-positive samples, a neutralization assay identified seven containing DENV-specific antibodies. We amplified the viral non-structural 1 (NS1) gene in two and the envelope (E) gene in one of these seven samples by RT-PCR. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that these DENV genes belonged to the epidemic DENV-2 family, not the sylvatic DENV family. These results suggest that NHPs may serve as a reservoir of epidemic DENV; therefore, the ecology of the urban DENV infection cycle should be investigated in these animals in detail.