Investigating the Role of Race and Stressful Life Events on the Smoking Patterns of Pregnant and Postpartum Women in the United States: A Multistate Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System Phase 8 (2016-2018) Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the smoking patterns of women who experienced stressful life events and the impact of racial disparities on the relationship between stressful life events, and prenatal/ postpartum smoking. METHODS: The study analyzed data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System Phase 8 (2016-2018) survey across five states (CT, LA, MA, MO, WI). Four stressful life event categories were created using thirteen affiliated questions: financial, trauma, partner, and emotional. We assessed: 1) the association between smoking and stressful life events, 2) the impact of race on the relation between smoking and stressful life events, and 3) the long-term effects of smoking on health by assessing the association between smoking and maternal morbidity. Bivariate statistics and multivariate Poisson regression models were conducted. RESULTS: A total of 24,209 women from five states were included. 8.9% of respondents reported smoking during pregnancy, and 12.7% reported smoking postpartum. There was a significant association between all stressful life events and smoking. Trauma stressful life event had the strongest association with smoking during pregnancy (adjusted PR=2.01; CI: 1.79-2.27) and postpartum (adjusted PR= 1.80; CI: 1.64-1.98). Race and stressful life event interaction effects on smoking had varied significant findings, but at least one racial/ ethnic minority group (Black, Hispanic, Asian) had a higher smoking prevalence than non-Hispanic White per stressful life event category. Lastly, the prevalence of maternal morbidity was higher for smoking during pregnancy (adjusted PR= 1.28; CI: 1.19-1.38) and postpartum (adjusted PR= 1.30; CI: 1.22-1.38) compared to no smoking. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Culturally congruent, multi-disciplinary care teams are needed to address both clinical and social needs to reduce stressful life events and smoking. Screenings for stress should be standardized with a referral system in place to provide ongoing support.

Examining the Role of Psychosocial Influences on Black Maternal Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

INTRODUCTION: Due to the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on communities of color, racial disparities in maternal mortality and morbidity are likely to increase. However, neighborhood and social support factors have yet to be discussed as potential mechanisms by which COVID-19 can exacerbate racial disparities. METHODS: We examined literature on the role of neighborhood factors and social support on maternal health outcomes and provided analytical perspective on the potential impacts of COVID-19 on Black birthing people. RESULTS: Even prior to the pandemic, Black individuals were disproportionately impacted by psychosocial stress. However, the compounding effect of pre-existing and current pandemic psychosocial stressors may be a mechanism by which racial disparities are exacerbated and result in higher rates of maternal mortality and morbidity in Black women. CONCLUSION: We recommend continued monitoring of data related to racial disparities in maternal mortality and morbidity throughout the pandemic. Given that Black women may be disproportionately impacted by psychosocial stress, it is necessary for leadership structures and communities to recognize the potential for worsening disparities and intervene.

Developing Tools to Report Racism in Maternal Health for the CDC Maternal Mortality Review Information Application (MMRIA): Findings from the MMRIA Racism & Discrimination Working Group.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this report from the field is to describe the process by which an multidisciplinary workgroup, selected by the CDC Foundation in partnership with maternal health experts, developed a definition of racism that would be specifically appropriate for inclusion on the Maternal Mortality Review Information Application (MMRIA) form. DESCRIPTION: In the United States Black women are nearly 4 times more likely to experience a pregnancy-related death. Recent evidence points to racism as a fundamental cause of this inequity. Furthermore, the CDC reports that 3 of 5 pregnancy related deaths are preventable. With these startling facts in mind, the CDC created the Maternal Mortality Review Information Application (MMRIA) for use by Maternal Mortality Review Committees (MMRC) to support standardized data abstraction, case narrative development, documentation of committee decisions, and analysis on maternal mortality to inform practices and policies for preventing maternal mortality. ASSESSMENT: Charged with the task of defining racism and discrimination as contributors to pregnancy related mortality, the work group established four goals to define their efforts: (1) the desire to create a product that was inclusive of all forms of racism and discrimination experienced by birthing people; (2) an acknowledgement of the legacy of racism in the U.S. and the norms in health care delivery that perpetuate racist ideology; (3) an acknowledgement of the racist narratives surrounding the issue of maternal mortality and morbidity that often leads to victim blaming; and (4) that the product would be user friendly for MMRCs. CONCLUSION: The working group developed three definitions and a list of recommendations for action to help MMRC members provide suggested interventions to adopt when discrimination or racism were contributing factors to a maternal death. The specification of these definitions will allow the systematic tracking of the contribution of racism to maternal mortality through the MMRIA and allow a greater standardization of its identification across participating jurisdictions with MMRCs that use the form.

Corrigendum: The impact of hostile abortion legislation on the United States maternal mortality crisis: a call for increased abortion education.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1291668.].

The Efficacy of Provider-Based Prenatal Interventions to Reduce Maternal Stress: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: Exposure to stress during the prenatal period is often associated with adverse maternal and neonatal health outcomes and is increasing in prevalence in the United States. Health care providers play a crucial role in addressing and mitigating this stress, but there is a lack of consensus regarding effective interventions. This review evaluates the effectiveness of prenatal provider-based interventions that reduce stress for pregnant people, especially those who are disproportionately affected by stress. METHODS: A search of relevant English-language literature was conducted using PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science, Embase, and PyscInfo. Inclusion criteria were 1) the target population was pregnant people, 2) the intervention was delivered within the U.S. health care system, and 3) the study intervention had the goal of reducing stress (stress-reducing intervention). RESULTS: A total of 3,562 records were identified in the search and 23 were included in analysis. The four identified categories for provider-led stress-reducing prenatal interventions included in the review are 1) skills-building, 2) mindfulness, 3) behavioral therapy, and 4) group support. Findings suggest an increased overall likelihood of mood and maternal stress improvement among pregnant people who complete provider-based stress-reducing interventions, especially group-based therapies that integrate resource allocation, skills-building, mindfulness, and/or behavioral therapy into an intersectional program. However, the efficacy of each type of intervention varies by category and type of maternal stress targeted. CONCLUSIONS: Although few studies demonstrated a significant reduction in stress for pregnant people, this review highlights the critical need for increased research and attention to stress-reducing interventions in the prenatal period, especially as it pertains to minoritized populations.

The influence of racial-ethnic discrimination on women's health care outcomes: A mixed methods systematic review.

BACKGROUND: In the U.S, a wide body of evidence has documented significant racial-ethnic disparities in women's health, and growing attention has focused on discrimination in health care as an underlying cause. Yet, there are knowledge gaps on how experiences of racial-ethnic health care discrimination across the life course influence the health of women of color. Our objective was to summarize existing literature on the impact of racial-ethnic health care discrimination on health care outcomes for women of color to examine multiple health care areas encountered across the life course. METHODS: We systematically searched three databases and conducted study screening, data extraction, and quality assessment. We included quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed literature on racial-ethnic health care discrimination towards women of color, focusing on studies that measured patient-perceived discrimination or differential treatment resulting from implicit provider bias. Results were summarized through narrative synthesis. RESULTS: In total, 84 articles were included spanning different health care domains, such as perinatal and cancer care. Qualitative studies demonstrated the existence of racial-ethnic discrimination across care domains. Most quantitative studies reported a mix of positive and null associations between discrimination and adverse health care outcomes, with variation by the type of health care outcome. For instance, over three-quarters of the studies exploring associations between discrimination/bias and health care-related behaviors or beliefs found significant associations, whereas around two-thirds of the studies on clinical interventions found no significant associations. CONCLUSIONS: This review shows substantial evidence on the existence of racial-ethnic discrimination in health care and its impact on women of color in the U.S. However, the evidence on how this phenomenon influences health care outcomes varies in strength by the type of outcome investigated. High-quality, targeted research using validated measures that is grounded in theoretical frameworks on racism is needed. This systematic review was registered [PROSPERO ID: CRD42018105448].

The impact of hostile abortion legislation on the United States maternal mortality crisis: a call for increased abortion education.

The growing restrictive abortion policies nationwide and the Supreme Court decision on Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization place increasing barriers to abortion access in the United States. These restrictions disproportionately affect low-income people of color, immigrants, and non-English speakers, and have the potential to exacerbate already existing racial inequities in maternal and neonatal outcomes. The United States is facing a Black maternal health crisis where Black birthing people are more than twice as likely to experience maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity compared to White birthing people. Restrictions creating geographic, transportation, and financial barriers to obtaining an abortion can result in increased rates of maternal death and adverse outcomes across all groups but especially among Black birthing people. Restrictive abortion laws in certain states will decrease already limited training opportunities in abortion care for medical professionals, despite the existing abortion provider shortage. There is an immediate need for federal legislation codifying broad abortion care access into law and expanding access to abortion training across medical education. This commentary explores the impact of restrictive abortion laws on the Black maternal health crisis through multiple pathways in a logic model. By identifying current barriers to abortion education in medical school and residency, we created a list of action items to expand abortion education and access.

Characteristics of High Versus Low-Performing Hospitals for Very Preterm Infant Morbidity and Mortality.

Objective: To ascertain organizational attributes, policies, and practices that differentiate hospitals with high versus low risk-adjusted rates of very preterm neonatal morbidity and mortality (NMM). Methods: Using a positive deviance research framework, we conducted qualitative interviews of hospital leadership and frontline clinicians from September-October 2018 in 4 high-performing and 4 low-performing hospitals in New York City, based on NMM measured in previous research. Key interview topics included NICU physician and nurse staffing, professional development, standardization of care, quality measurement and improvement, and efforts to measure and report on racial/ethnic disparities in care and outcomes for very preterm infants. Interviews were audiotaped, professionally transcribed, and coded using NVivo software. In qualitative content analysis, researchers blinded to hospital performance identified emergent themes, highlighted illustrative quotes, and drew qualitative comparisons between hospital clusters. Results: The following features distinguished high-performing facilities: 1) stronger commitment from hospital leadership to diversity, quality, and equity; 2) better access to specialist physicians and experienced nursing staff; 3) inclusion of nurses in developing clinical policies and protocols, and 4) acknowledgement of the influence of racism and bias in healthcare on racial-ethnic disparities. In both clusters, areas for improvement included comprehensive family engagement strategies, care standardization, and reporting of quality data by patient sociodemographic characteristics. Conclusions and relevance: Our findings suggest specific organizational and cultural characteristics, from hospital leadership and clinician perspectives, that may yield better patient outcomes, and demonstrate the utility of a positive deviance framework to center equity in quality initiatives for high-risk infant care.

Development of a Maternal Equity Safety Bundle to Eliminate Racial Inequities in Massachusetts.

OBJECTIVE: The PNQIN (Perinatal-Neonatal Quality Improvement Network of Massachusetts) sought to adapt the Reduction of Peripartum Racial and Ethnic Disparities Conceptual Framework and Maternal Safety Consensus Bundle by selecting and defining measures to create a bundle to address maternal health inequities in Massachusetts. This study describes the process of developing consensus-based measures to implement the PNQIN Maternal Equity Bundle across Massachusetts hospitals participating in the Alliance for Innovation on Maternal Health Initiative. METHODS: Our team used a mixed-methods approach to create the PNQIN Maternal Equity Bundle through consensus including a literature review, expert interviews, and a modified Delphi process to compile, define, and select measures to drive maternal equity-focused action. Stakeholders were identified by purposive and snowball sampling and included obstetrician-gynecologists, midwives, nurses, epidemiologists, and racial equity scholars. Dedoose 9.0 was used to complete an inductive analysis of interview transcripts. A modified Delphi method was used to reach consensus on recommendations and measures for the PNQIN Maternal Equity Bundle. RESULTS: Twenty-five interviews were completed. Seven themes emerged, including the need for 1) data stratification by race, ethnicity and language; 2) performance of a readiness assessment; 3) culture shift toward equity; 4) inclusion of antiracism and bias training; 5) addressing challenges of nonacademic hospitals; 6) a life-course approach; and 7) selection of timing of implementation. Twenty initial quality measures (structure, process, and outcome) were identified through expert interviews. Group consensus supported 10 measures to be incorporated into the bundle. CONCLUSION: Structure, process, and outcome quality measures were selected and defined for a maternal equity safety bundle that seeks to create an equity-focused infrastructure and equity-specific actions at birthing facilities. Implementation of an equity-focused safety bundle at birthing facilities may close racial gaps in maternal outcomes.

Distinguishing High-Performing From Low-Performing Hospitals for Severe Maternal Morbidity: A Focus on Quality and Equity.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate which organizational factors, policies, and practices distinguish hospitals with high compared with low risk-adjusted rates of severe maternal morbidity (SMM). METHODS: Using a positive deviance approach, this qualitative study included 50 semistructured interviews with health care professionals (obstetrics and gynecology chairs, labor and delivery medical directors, nurse managers, frontline nurses, physicians or nurses responsible for quality and safety, and chief medical officers) in four low-performing and four high-performing hospitals in New York City. Hospital performance was based on risk-adjusted morbidity metrics from previous research. Major topics explored were structural characteristics (eg, staffing, credentialing), organizational characteristics (eg, culture, leadership, communication, use of data), labor and delivery practices (eg, use of standardized, evidence-based practices, teamwork), and racial and ethnic disparities in SMM. All interviews were audiotaped, professionally transcribed, and coded using NVivo software. Researchers blinded to group assignment conducted qualitative content analysis. Researchers wrote analytic memos to identify key themes and patterns emerging from the interviews, highlight illustrative quotes, and draw qualitative comparisons between the two hospital clusters with different (but unrevealed) performance levels. RESULTS: Six themes distinguished high-performing from low-performing hospitals. High-performing hospitals were more likely to have: 1) senior leadership involved in day-to-day quality activities and dedicated to quality improvement, 2) a strong focus on standards and standardized care, 3) strong nurse-physician communication and teamwork, 4) adequate physician and nurse staffing and supervision, 5) sharing of performance data with nurses and other frontline clinicians, and 6) explicit awareness that racial and ethnic disparities exist and that racism and bias in the hospital can lead to differential treatment. CONCLUSION: Organizational factors, policies, and practices at multiple levels distinguish high-performing from low-performing hospitals for SMM. Findings illustrate the potential for targeted quality initiatives to improve maternal health and reduce obstetric disparities arising from delivery in low-performing hospitals.

A Systematic Policy Review of Black Maternal Health-Related Policies Proposed Federally and in Massachusetts: 2010-2020.

Background: Black women in the United States experience maternal mortality three to four times more often than white women (1, 2). States vary in degree of disparity, partially due to programs and policies available to pregnant people. In Massachusetts, Black women were approximately twice as likely as white women to experience pregnancy-associated mortality, with a large percentage of these deaths reported to be preventable (3). Methods: Using Massachusetts as a state-level comparison to national policies, we searched the US Congress and Massachusetts legislative databases for maternal health policies from 2010 to 2020. We screened 1,421 national and 360 Massachusetts bills, following set inclusion/exclusion criteria. Data analysis included (1) assessment of bill characteristics, (2) thematic analysis, and a (3) quality appraisal following an adapted model of the analytical framework for evaluating public health policy proposed by the National Collaborating Centre for Healthy Public Policy. Additionally, our data analysis identified the level of racism (internalized, interpersonal or institutional) that each policy addressed. Results: From 2010 to 2020, 31 national and 16 state-level policies were proposed that address maternal health and racial disparities. The majority of policies addressed racism at the institutional level alone (National: N = 19, 61.3%, Massachusetts: N = 14, 87.5%). Two national and two Massachusetts-level policies became law, while two national policies passed only the House of Representatives. Our critical appraisal revealed that the majority of unintended effects would be neutral or positive, however, some potential negative unintended effects were identified. The appraisal also identified 54.8% (n = 17) of national policies and 68.8% (n = 11) of Massachusetts with positive impact on health equity. Conclusions: There has been an increase in policies proposed addressing racial disparities and health equity in maternal health over the last 10 years. Although half of national policies proposed showed positive impact on health equity, shedding light on the work the U.S. is doing on a federal level to confront the Black maternal health crisis, only two policies made it to law, only one of which addressed racial disparities directly and had a positive impact on health equity.