Association of Brucellosis with Abortion Prevalence in Humans and Animals in Africa: A Review.

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease suspected to be the cause of abortions which remain largely undiagnosed in both humans and animals. A review of literature was performed to elucidate the contribution of brucellosis to abortions in humans, livestock and wildlife in Africa. A total number of 18 published articles associated brucellosis to abortions observed in humans and livestock in some parts of Africa. The contribution of brucellosis to abortions in humans was less reported in the literature compared to livestock; and no report was done in wildlife in Africa. The association of brucellosis to abortions in Africa was mostly based on bacteriologic, serologic or molecular techniques and Brucella abortus biovar 3 seemed more associated to abortions in cattle. The isolation and molecular characterization of Brucella species could advance the assessment of the contribution of brucellosis to abortions in Africa, focusing much in humans. The epidemiologic approach based on case-control comparisons could elucidate more about the contribution of brucellosis to abortions in Africa. The economic impact evaluation of abortions due to brucellosis could justify implementation of eradication programs of this disease in Africa, such as occupational and food hygiene in humans; with a vaccination and culling in animals.

Identification of common spatial and temporal trends in the epidemiology of cattle bovine tuberculosis and human extrapulmonary and drug-resistant tuberculosis in Malawi.

Background: Identification of common spatial disease trends between cattle bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and human extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) and drug-resistant tuberculosis (DRTB) can support integrated disease control and monitoring programmes. We employed the recently developed multivariate disease mapping methods to examine whether the diseases exhibited any spatial correlation. Methods: A retrospective study of cattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB cases from 2018 to 2022 was conducted. Bivariate shared spatiotemporal components models were fitted to a) cattle BTB and human EPTB and b) cattle BTB and human DRTB at the district level in Malawi, with cattle density, human density and climatic variables as independent variables. Results: Disease specific spatial effects were higher in the southern half of the country, while the shared spatial effects were more dominant in both the south and western parts of the country. The shared temporal effects showed constant trends, while disease specific temporal effects showed an increasing pattern for cattle BTB and a constant pattern for human EPTB and DRTB. The predicted disease incidence pattern for all forms of TB in the period without data showed a constant pattern over the years. Cattle density was positively associated with cattle BTB ( ß : 0.022; 95% Credible Interval (CI): 0.004, 0.042). Human density was positively associated with human EPTB ( ß : 0.005; 95% CI: 0.001, 0.009). Conclusion: Cattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB have a common spatial pattern in the west and southern parts of Malawi. Integrated interventions targeting high-density areas for cattle and human may have positive impacts on cattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB.

Pattern of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus Associated with Human Exposure to Dengue Virus in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Dengue is a worldwide public health concern. The current study assessed the extent of human exposure to the dengue virus in relation to the distribution pattern of Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in Kinshasa. Cross-sectional surveys were carried out in 2021 and 2022. The baseline entomological survey involved 19 municipalities using a grid cell sampling approach. All containers holding water were inspected for the presence of larvae in each grid. The collected larvae were kept in an insectary until the adult emergence for morphological identification. Four hundred febrile patients attending the hospital were screened for the presence of dengue antibodies (IgG, IgM) and NS1 antigen using a rapid diagnostic test (RDT) Biosynex®. Residences of positive cases were geo-referenced. We evaluated 1850 grid cells, of which 19.5% were positive for Aedes larvae. The positive grid cells were identified in the Ndjili (44.0%), Mont Ngafula (32.0%) and Ngaliema (26.0%), and Limete (32.0%) municipalities. The Ae. aegypti (11.2%) predominated in the northwestern, and Ae. albopictus (9.1%) appeared in the high vegetation coverage areas. Of 61 (15.3%) participants exposed to dengue, 8.3% presented acute dengue. Young, (6-17 years), male, and Mont Amba district participants were most exposed to dengue. In conclusion, dengue occurrence in Kinshasa overlaps somewhat the geographical and ecological distributions of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. Both species are not homogenously distributed, likely due to environmental factors. These findings can assist the targeted control activities.

Brucellosis and its associated risk factors to humans and domestic ruminants in Kagera Ecosystem, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Brucellosis is an important disease for both veterinary and public health. A study was conducted to understand the seroprevalence of brucellosis and its associated risk factors in pastoral areas of Kagera, Tanzania. METHODS: Sera from 156 patients with malaria-like symptoms were analyzed using the commercial rapid agglutination test (specific for B.abortus and B.melitensis detection) and Fluorescence Polarization Assay (FPA). Sera from 426 cattle, 206 goats and 197 sheep were analyzed using Rose Bengal Plate (RBPT) and Competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) tests. RESULTS: In humans, overall brucellosis, B. abortus, and B. melitensis sero-prevalences were 7.7% (95%CI: 3.8-12.2%), 1.9% (95% CI: 0.4-4.5%), and 5.8 % (95%CI: 2.6-10.6%), respectively. At animal level, seropositivity was 5.9% (95%CI: 4.0-8.6%), 2.5% (95%CI: 0.8-5.7%) and 0.5% (95%CI: 0.01-2.8%) in cattle, goats and sheep, respectively. At herd level, seropositivity was 18.2% (95%CI: 12.0-25.8%) in cattle and 6.9% (95%CI: 2.2-15.3%) in small ruminants. Brucellosis was associated with assisting in parturition without wearing protective gears (OR= 5.6; p= 0.02) in humans, herds of 50-200 animals (OR= 4.2, p= 0.01) and cattle (OR=3.5; p=0.01). The knowledge of brucellosis among pastoralists (OR=0.1; p<0.01) was a protective factor. CONCLUSION: Brucella infections could be occurring in pastoralists and domestic ruminants in Kagera. Community health education is necessary for the control of brucellosis in Tanzania.

Association of brucellosis to abortions in humans and domestic ruminants in Kagera ecosystem, Tanzania.

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease of socio-economic importance. Understanding the association of this disease with pregnancy outcome has the potential of contributing to the reduction of its reproductive burden in humans and animals among pastoral communities in Tanzania. A prospective cohort study was conducted in Kagera Region on pregnant women (n = 76) and gravid ruminants (121 cattle, 125 goats and 111 sheep). Exposed and non-exposed groups to brucellosis were followed for 6 months (from 15 November 2017 to 15 April 2018). Sera were collected and analysed using Rose Bengal Test (RBT) and Fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) test. Measures of effect, univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were computed. Positivity to both RBT and FPA tests was 21% (95% CI: 12.5-32) in pregnant women and 5% (95% CI: 3.1-8) in gravid ruminants. Among aborted cases, four women (out of nine), two cows (out of seven), two goats (out of 26) and zero sheep (out of 11) were positive to brucellosis. The abortion rate in humans and ruminants was 11.8% and 12.3%, respectively. Seropositivity to brucellosis was similar in aborted and non-aborted cases in humans (p = .08) and in ruminants (p = .2). At the population level, brucellosis was associated with abortions (population attributable risk: PAR) at 3.5% in pregnant women and at 0.5% in gravid ruminants in the study area. Infections to brucellosis were increased in exposed pregnant women (OR = 19; 95% CI: 1.8-203, p = .01) and in cattle (OR = 11; 95% CI: 1.3-88, p = .02). There is an indication that brucellosis could be contributing to abortions in pregnant women and domestic ruminants Kagera Region. Molecular tools could support more the results from serological tests to avoid cross-reaction with other pathogen agents. Control of brucellosis in animals is likely to reduce the threat of abortions in humans.

Effectiveness of an integrated intervention in the control of endo- and ectoparasites of pigs kept by smallholder farmers in Mbeya rural and Mbozi districts, Tanzania.

This study was conducted to evaluate effectiveness of an integrated management intervention in the control of endo- and ectoparasites of pigs kept by smallholder farmers in Mbeya Rural and Mbozi districts of southern highlands of Tanzania. A repeated cross-sectional group randomization design was employed, with 10 villages in the intervention group and six villages in the control group. The intervention consisted of improving pig confinement, feeds and feeding practices, and strategic anthelmintic treatment of pigs with oxfendazole, to primarily control Taenia solium (porcine) cysticercosis and nematodes; and with ivermectin to control ectoparasites and nematodes. Blood and faecal samples, ectoparasite specimens and skin scrapings were collected at baseline and two follow-up rounds, at an interval of seven months. A total of 482, 460 and 421 pigs were sampled in 221, 196 and 139 households at baseline, first and second follow-up visits respectively. Sero-prevalence of PC, prevalence and burden of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes and prevalence of ectoparasites were determined using Ag-ELISA, McMaster faecal egg counting technique and body searches/skin scrapings, respectively. Mann Whitney test was used to measure intervention effect by comparing changes from baseline values of prevalence and faecal egg counts between the two groups. No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed between the two groups, in changes from baseline of sero-prevalence of PC. The intervention significantly reduced prevalence of Trichuris suis (p = 0.044) and mean faecal egg counts of Ascaris suum (p = 0.02) from baseline to first follow-up. The intervention showed a substantial effect on the prevalence of ectoparasites as it significantly reduced overall prevalence of ectoparasites (p = 0.026), lice (p = 0.045), ticks (p = 0.049) and mites (p = 0.013) from baseline to first follow-up, and prevalence of ectoparasites, lice and mites from baseline to second follow-up (p = 0.052, p = 0.03, p = 0.017 respectively). This study has demonstrated a moderate effect of the intervention on controlling GI nematodes and ectoparasites, but no effect on sero-prevalence of PC. The reported ineffectiveness of the intervention against PC is probably an underestimation because serology is not able to provide quantitative data. It may also be a result of reduced compliance as this was a field study. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to better understand transmission dynamics of PC and explore One Health approaches including treatment of the human population against taeniosis to better secure public health.

Risk factors for prevalence of pig parasitoses in Mbeya Region, Tanzania.

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine risk factors for prevalence of common endo- and ectoparasites of pigs kept by smallholder farmers in Mbozi and Mbeya (Rural) districts of Mbeya Region, in Tanzania. A total of 482 pigs from 220 households of 16 villages, eight in each district were randomly selected and examined. Prevalence of Taenia solium cysticercosis was 11.5%, gastrointestinal nematodes 63.7% and ectoparasites 21.2% based on Ag-ELISA, McMaster technique and full body searches/ear scrapings, respectively. Nematode eggs identified were strongyles (Oesophagostomum spp. and Trichostrongylus spp.), Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis and Strongyloides ransomi with prevalence of 57.4%, 17.5%, 5.3% and 1.1%, respectively. Four groups of ectoparasites were identified, i.e. lice (Haematopinus suis), ticks (Rhipicephalus spp., Amblyomma spp., Haemaphysalis spp. and Boophilus spp.), fleas (Ctenocephalides canis) and mites (Sarcoptes scabiei var. suis and Demodex phylloides), with prevalence of 19.1%, 2.1%, 0.4%, and 1.2%, respectively. Pigs in Mbeya (Rural) District had higher odds for porcine cysticercosis (OR=2.63, 95% CI: [1.22-5.55]). Poor pen hygiene and infrequent antiparasitic treatment were identified to be risk factors for prevalence of nematode infections (OR=1.95 [1.09-3.52] and OR=1.78 [1.06-2.94], respectively). The odds for high nematode burdens increased in cases of poor pen hygiene (OR=4.20 [2.54-6.62]) and poor feed quality (OR=3.7 [1.66-8.33]). Pigs not treated with antiparasitic drugs within the last three months had higher odds for ectoparasite (OR=4.0 [1.78-9.09]) and lice infestations (OR=8.33 [1.96-14.28]) than treated pigs. This study has shown that parasitoses constitute a major burden for smallholder pigs in Mbeya Region and major risk factors included infrequent antiparasitic treatment, poor pen hygiene and poor feed quality. Cost-effective intervention strategies are needed to improve pork production, secure pig welfare and ensure safe pork for human consumption.

Predicting distribution of Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens complex, potential vectors of Rift Valley fever virus in relation to disease epidemics in East Africa.

BACKGROUND: The East African region has experienced several Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreaks since the 1930s. The objective of this study was to identify distributions of potential disease vectors in relation to disease epidemics. Understanding disease vector potential distributions is a major concern for disease transmission dynamics. METHODS: DIVERSE ECOLOGICAL NICHE MODELLING TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED FOR THIS PURPOSE: we present a maximum entropy (Maxent) approach for estimating distributions of potential RVF vectors in un-sampled areas in East Africa. We modelled the distribution of two species of mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens complex) responsible for potential maintenance and amplification of the virus, respectively. Predicted distributions of environmentally suitable areas in East Africa were based on the presence-only occurrence data derived from our entomological study in Ngorongoro District in northern Tanzania. RESULTS: Our model predicted potential suitable areas with high success rates of 90.9% for A. aegypti and 91.6% for C. pipiens complex. Model performance was statistically significantly better than random for both species. Most suitable sites for the two vectors were predicted in central and northwestern Tanzania with previous disease epidemics. Other important risk areas include western Lake Victoria, northern parts of Lake Malawi, and the Rift Valley region of Kenya. CONCLUSION: Findings from this study show distributions of vectors had biological and epidemiological significance in relation to disease outbreak hotspots, and hence provide guidance for the selection of sampling areas for RVF vectors during inter-epidemic periods.