Symbiont plasticity as a driver of plant success.

We discuss which plant species are likely to become winners, that is achieve the highest global abundance, in changing landscapes, and whether plant-associated microbes play a determining role. Reduction and fragmentation of natural habitats in historic landscapes have led to the emergence of patchy, hybrid landscapes, and novel landscapes where anthropogenic ecosystems prevail. In patchy landscapes, species with broad niches are favoured. Plasticity in the degree of association with symbiotic microbes may contribute to broader plant niches and optimization of symbiosis costs and benefits, by downregulating symbiosis when it is unnecessary and upregulating it when it is beneficial. Plasticity can also be expressed as the switch from one type of mutualism to another, for example from nutritive to defensive mutualism with increasing soil fertility and the associated increase in parasite load. Upon dispersal, wide mutualistic partner receptivity is another facet of symbiont plasticity that becomes beneficial, because plants are not limited by the availability of specialist partners when arriving at new locations. Thus, under conditions of global change, symbiont plasticity allows plants to optimize the activity of mutualistic relationships, potentially allowing them to become winners by maximizing geographic occupancy and local abundance.

Disturbance induces similar shifts in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities from grassland and arable field soils.

Anthropogenic disturbances play an increasingly important role in structuring the diversity and functioning of soil organisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Frequently, multiple land-use practices, which may represent disturbances for AM fungal communities, operate simultaneously in different habitats. It is not known, however, how previous land-use history and specific habitat type influence AM fungal community response to disturbances. We applied mechanical (cutting to stimulate tillage) and chemical (herbicide addition) disturbances to AM fungal communities from meadow and arable field soils. Our results indicated that AM fungal communities from meadows, which previously had experienced mowing, were more species rich than communities from fields that had experienced intensive land-use practices. There were no significant differences, however, in the responses to disturbance of the AM fungal communities from field and meadow soils. We expected mechanical disturbance to promote taxa from the family Glomeraceae which are expected to exhibit a ruderal life-history strategy; instead, the abundance of this family increased in response to chemical disturbance. Simultaneous application of mechanical disturbance and herbicide decreased only the abundance of Diversisporaceae. No AM fungal families increased in abundance when both mechanical and chemical disturbances were applied simultaneously, but all disturbances increased the abundance of culturable AM fungi. Our study demonstrates that although chemical and mechanical forms of disturbance favor different AM fungal families, existing information about family-level characteristics may not adequately characterize the life history strategies of AM fungus species.

Hedgerows increase the diversity and modify the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Mediterranean agricultural landscapes.

Sustainable agriculture is essential to address global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Hedgerows enhance aboveground biodiversity and provide ecosystem services, but little is known about their impact on soil biota. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are one of the key components of belowground biodiversity. We compared the diversity and composition of AM fungal communities at four farmland sites located in Central Spain, where 132 soil samples in total were collected to assess soil physical and chemical properties and the AM fungal communities. We compared the richness (number of AM fungal taxa), taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity, and structure of the AM fungal communities across three farmland habitat types, namely hedgerows, woody crops (olive groves and vineyard), and herbaceous crops (barley, sunflower, and wheat). Our results showed positive effects of hedgerows on most diversity metrics. Almost 60% of the AM fungal taxa were shared among the three farmland habitat types. Hedgerows increased AM fungal taxonomic richness (31%) and alpha diversity (25%), and especially so compared to herbaceous crops (45% and 28%, respectively). Hedgerows harbored elevated proportions of AM fungi with non-ruderal life-history strategies. AM fungal communities were more similar between hedgerows and woody crops than between hedgerows and adjacent herbaceous crops, possibly because of differences in tillage and fertilization. Unexpectedly, hedgerows reduced phylogenetic diversity, which might be related to more selective associations of AM fungi with woody plants than with herbaceous crops. Overall, the results suggest that planting hedgerows contributes to maintain belowground diversity. Thus, European farmers should plant more hedgerows to attain the goals of the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030.

Global taxonomic and phylogenetic assembly of AM fungi.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are a ubiquitous group of plant symbionts, yet processes underlying their global assembly - in particular the roles of dispersal limitation and historical drivers - remain poorly understood. Because earlier studies have reported niche conservatism in AM fungi, we hypothesized that variation in taxonomic community composition (i.e., unweighted by taxon relatedness) should resemble variation in phylogenetic community composition (i.e., weighted by taxon relatedness) which reflects ancestral adaptations to historical habitat gradients. Because of the presumed strong dispersal ability of AM fungi, we also anticipated that the large-scale structure of AM fungal communities would track environmental conditions without regional discontinuity. We used recently published AM fungal sequence data (small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene) from soil samples collected worldwide to reconstruct global patterns in taxonomic and phylogenetic community variation. The taxonomic structure of AM fungal communities was primarily driven by habitat conditions, with limited regional differentiation, and there were two well-supported clusters of communities - occurring in cold and warm conditions. Phylogenetic structure was driven by the same factors, though all relationships were markedly weaker. This suggests that niche conservatism with respect to habitat associations is weakly expressed in AM fungal communities. We conclude that the composition of AM fungal communities tracks major climatic and edaphic gradients, with the effects of dispersal limitation and historic factors considerably less apparent than those of climate and soil.

Light availability and light demand of plants shape the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in their roots.

Plants involved in the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis trade photosynthetically derived carbon for fungal-provided soil nutrients. However, little is known about how plant light demand and ambient light conditions influence root-associating AM fungal communities. We conducted a manipulative field experiment to test whether plants' shade-tolerance influences their root AM fungal communities in open and shaded grassland sites. We found similar light-dependent shifts in AM fungal community structure for experimental bait plant roots and the surrounding soil. Yet, deviation from the surrounding soil towards lower AM fungal beta-diversity in the roots of shade-intolerant plants in shade suggested preferential carbon allocation to specific AM fungi in conditions where plant-assimilated carbon available to fungi was limited. We conclude that favourable environmental conditions widen the plant biotic niche, as demonstrated here with optimal light availability reducing plants' selectivity for specific AM fungi, and promote compatibility with a larger number of AM fungal taxa.

Temperature and pH define the realised niche space of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are a globally distributed group of soil organisms that play critical roles in ecosystem function. However, the ecological niches of individual AM fungal taxa are poorly understood. We collected > 300 soil samples from natural ecosystems worldwide and modelled the realised niches of AM fungal virtual taxa (VT; approximately species-level phylogroups). We found that environmental and spatial variables jointly explained VT distribution worldwide, with temperature and pH being the most important abiotic drivers, and spatial effects generally occurring at local to regional scales. While dispersal limitation could explain some variation in VT distribution, VT relative abundance was almost exclusively driven by environmental variables. Several environmental and spatial effects on VT distribution and relative abundance were correlated with phylogeny, indicating that closely related VT exhibit similar niche optima and widths. Major clades within the Glomeraceae exhibited distinct niche optima, Acaulosporaceae generally had niche optima in low pH and low temperature conditions, and Gigasporaceae generally had niche optima in high precipitation conditions. Identification of the realised niche space occupied by individual and phylogenetic groups of soil microbial taxa provides a basis for building detailed hypotheses about how soil communities respond to gradients and manipulation in ecosystems worldwide.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi promote small-scale vegetation recovery in the forest understorey.

Root-associating arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi foster vegetation recovery in degraded habitats. AM fungi increase nutrient availability for host plants; therefore, their importance is expected to be higher when nutrient availability is low. However, little is known about how small-scale variation in nutrient availability influences plant and AM fungal communities in a stable ecosystem. We conducted a 2-year field study in the understorey of a boreonemoral forest where we examined plant and AM fungal communities at microsites (15 cm diameter) with intact vegetation cover and at disturbed microsites where vegetation was cleared away and soil was sterilized to remove soil biota. We manipulated soil nutrient content (increased with fertilizer, unchanged, or decreased with sucrose addition) and fungal activity (natural or suppressed by fungicide addition) at these microsites. After two vegetation seasons, manipulations with nutrient content resulted in significant, although moderate, differences in the content of soil nutrients (e.g. in soil phosphorus). Suppression of fungal activity resulted in lower richness, abundance and phylogenetic diversity of AM fungal community, independently of microsite type and soil fertility level. Plant species richness and diversity decreased when fungal activity was suppressed at disturbed but not in intact microsites. The correlation between plant and AM fungal communities was not influenced by microsite type or soil fertility. We conclude that small-scale variation in soil fertility and habitat integrity does not influence the interactions between plants and AM fungi. The richness, but not composition, of AM fungal communities recovered fast after small-scale disturbance and supported the recovery of species-rich vegetation.

Latitudinal variation in soil nematode communities under climate warming-related range-expanding and native plants.

Current climate change has led to latitudinal and altitudinal range expansions of numerous species. During such range expansions, plant species are expected to experience changes in interactions with other organisms, especially with belowground biota that have a limited dispersal capacity. Nematodes form a key component of the belowground food web as they include bacterivores, fungivores, omnivores and root herbivores. However, their community composition under climate change-driven intracontinental range-expanding plants has been studied almost exclusively under controlled conditions, whereas little is known about actual patterns in the field. Here, we use novel molecular sequencing techniques combined with morphological quantification in order to examine nematode communities in the rhizospheres of four range-expanding and four congeneric native species along a 2,000 km latitudinal transect from South-Eastern to North-Western Europe. We tested the hypotheses that latitudinal shifts in nematode community composition are stronger in range-expanding plant species than in congeneric natives and that in their new range, range-expanding plant species accumulate fewest root-feeding nematodes. Our results show latitudinal variation in nematode community composition of both range expanders and native plant species, while operational taxonomic unit richness remained the same across ranges. Therefore, range-expanding plant species face different nematode communities at higher latitudes, but this is also the case for widespread native plant species. Only one of the four range-expanding plant species showed a stronger shift in nematode community composition than its congeneric native and accumulated fewer root-feeding nematodes in its new range. We conclude that variation in nematode community composition with increasing latitude occurs for both range-expanding and native plant species and that some range-expanding plant species may become released from root-feeding nematodes in the new range.

Anthropogenic disturbance equalizes diversity levels in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities.

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is a key plant-microbe interaction in sustainable functioning ecosystems. Increasing anthropogenic disturbance poses a threat to AM fungal communities worldwide, but there is little empirical evidence about its potential negative consequences. In this global study, we sequenced AM fungal DNA in soil samples collected from pairs of natural (undisturbed) and anthropogenic (disturbed) plots in two ecosystem types (10 naturally wooded and six naturally unwooded ecosystems). We found that ecosystem type had stronger directional effects than anthropogenic disturbance on AM fungal alpha and beta diversity. However, disturbance increased alpha and beta diversity at sites where natural diversity was low and decreased diversity at sites where natural diversity was high. Cultured AM fungal taxa were more prevalent in anthropogenic than natural plots, probably due to their efficient colonization strategies and ability to recover from disturbance. We conclude that anthropogenic disturbance does not have a consistent directional effect on AM fungal diversity; rather, disturbance equalizes levels of diversity at large scales and causes changes in community functional structure.

Global sampling of plant roots expands the described molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.

We aimed to enhance understanding of the molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) by building a new global dataset targeting previously unstudied geographical areas. In total, we sampled 96 plant species from 25 sites that encompassed all continents except Antarctica. AMF in plant roots were detected by sequencing the nuclear SSU rRNA gene fragment using either cloning followed by Sanger sequencing or 454-sequencing. A total of 204 AMF phylogroups (virtual taxa, VT) were recorded, increasing the described number of Glomeromycota VT from 308 to 341 globally. Novel VT were detected from 21 sites; three novel but nevertheless widespread VT (Glomus spp. MO-G52, MO-G53, MO-G57) were recorded from six continents. The largest increases in regional VT number were recorded in previously little-studied Oceania and in the boreal and polar climatic zones - this study providing the first molecular data from the latter. Ordination revealed differences in AM fungal communities between different continents and climatic zones, suggesting that both biogeographic history and environmental conditions underlie the global variation of those communities. Our results show that a considerable proportion of Glomeromycota diversity has been recorded in many regions, though further large increases in richness can be expected in remaining unstudied areas.

Natural restoration alters soil microbial community structure, but has contrasting effects on the diversity of bacterial and fungal assemblages in salinized grasslands.

Natural restoration has often been considered an effective measure for rehabilitating degraded ecosystems. However, its impact on the structure and diversity of soil microbial communities, particularly within a salinized grassland during its restoration succession, remains unclear. In this study, we examined the effects of natural restoration on the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Operational Taxonomic Units (OTU) richness, and structure of the soil microbial community of a sodic-saline grassland in China using high-throughput amplicon sequencing data from representative successional chronosequences. Our results indicated that natural restoration resulted in a significant mitigation of the grassland salinization (pH from 9.31 to 8.32 and electrical conductivity from 393.33 to 136.67 µs·cm-1) and a significant alteration of the soil microbial community structure of the grassland (p < 0.01). However, the effects of natural recovery differed in terms of the abundance and diversity of bacteria and fungi. For example, the relative abundance of the bacterial phyla Acidobacteria increased by 116.45 % in the topsoil and 339.03 % in the subsoil, while that of the fungal phyla Ascomycota decreased by 8.86 % in the topsoil and 30.18 % in the subsoil. There was no significant effect of restoration on bacterial diversity, but fungal diversity increased by 15.02 % in the Shannon-Wiener index and 62.20 % in the OTU richness in the topsoil. Model-selection analysis further corroborated that the alteration of the soil microbial structure by natural restoration may be due to the fact that the bacteria could adapt to the alleviated salinized grassland soil and the fungi could adapt to the improved soil fertility of the grasslands. Overall, our results contribute to an in-depth understanding of the impacts of natural restoration on soil microbial diversity and community structure in salinized grasslands during the long-term successional course. This may also help to apply natural restoration as a greener practice option for managing degraded ecosystems.

Global diversity and distribution of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil.

Our knowledge of microbial biogeography has advanced in recent years, yet we lack knowledge of the global diversity of some important functional groups. Here, we used environmental DNA from 327 globally collected soil samples to investigate the biodiversity patterns of nitrogen-fixing bacteria by focusing on the nifH gene but also amplifying the general prokaryotic 16S SSU region. Globally, N-fixing prokaryotic communities are driven mainly by climatic conditions, with most groups being positively correlated with stable hot or seasonally humid climates. Among soil parameters, pH, but also soil N content were most often shown to correlate with the diversity of N-fixer groups. However, specific groups of N-fixing prokaryotes show contrasting responses to the same variables, notably in Cyanobacteria that were negatively correlated with stable hot climates, and showed a U-shaped correlation with soil pH, contrary to other N-fixers. Also, the non-N-fixing prokaryotic community composition was differentially correlated with the diversity and abundance of N-fixer groups, showing the often-neglected impact of biotic interactions among bacteria.

Metabarcoding of soil environmental DNA to estimate plant diversity globally.

Introduction: Traditional approaches to collecting large-scale biodiversity data pose huge logistical and technical challenges. We aimed to assess how a comparatively simple method based on sequencing environmental DNA (eDNA) characterises global variation in plant diversity and community composition compared with data derived from traditional plant inventory methods. Methods: We sequenced a short fragment (P6 loop) of the chloroplast trnL intron from from 325 globally distributed soil samples and compared estimates of diversity and composition with those derived from traditional sources based on empirical (GBIF) or extrapolated plant distribution and diversity data. Results: Large-scale plant diversity and community composition patterns revealed by sequencing eDNA were broadly in accordance with those derived from traditional sources. The success of the eDNA taxonomy assignment, and the overlap of taxon lists between eDNA and GBIF, was greatest at moderate to high latitudes of the northern hemisphere. On average, around half (mean: 51.5% SD 17.6) of local GBIF records were represented in eDNA databases at the species level, depending on the geographic region. Discussion: eDNA trnL gene sequencing data accurately represent global patterns in plant diversity and composition and thus can provide a basis for large-scale vegetation studies. Important experimental considerations for plant eDNA studies include using a sampling volume and design to maximise the number of taxa detected and optimising the sequencing depth. However, increasing the coverage of reference sequence databases would yield the most significant improvements in the accuracy of taxonomic assignments made using the P6 loop of the trnL region.

Dominance, diversity, and niche breadth in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities.

Classical theory identifies resource competition as the major structuring force of biotic communities and predicts that (i) levels of dominance and richness in communities are inversely related, (ii) narrow niches allow dense "packing" in niche space and thus promote diversity, and (iii) dominants are generalists with wide niches, such that locally abundant taxa also exhibit wide distributions. Current empirical support, however, is mixed. We tested these expectations using published data on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal community composition worldwide. We recorded the expected negative relationship between dominance and richness and, to a degree, the positive association between local and global dominance. However, contrary to expectations, dominance was pronounced in communities where more specialists were present and, conversely, richness was higher in communities with more generalists. Thus, resource competition and niche packing appear to be of limited importance in AM fungal community assembly; rather, patterns of dominance and diversity seem more consistent with habitat filtering and stochastic processes.

The role of genetic diversity and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity in population recovery of the semi-natural grassland plant species Succisa pratensis.

BACKGROUND: Ecosystem restoration is as a critical tool to counteract the decline of biodiversity and recover vital ecosystem services. Restoration efforts, however, often fall short of meeting their goals. Although functionally important levels of biodiversity can significantly contribute to the outcome of ecosystem restoration, they are often overlooked. One such important facet of biodiversity is within-species genetic diversity, which is fundamental to population fitness and adaptation to environmental change. Also the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), obligate root symbionts that regulate nutrient and carbon cycles, potentially plays a vital role in mediating ecosystem restoration outcome. In this study, we investigated the relative contribution of intraspecific population genetic diversity, AMF diversity, and their interaction, to population recovery of Succisa pratensis, a key species of nutrient poor semi natural grasslands. We genotyped 180 individuals from 12 populations of S. pratensis and characterized AMF composition in their roots, using microsatellite markers and next generation amplicon sequencing, respectively. We also investigated whether the genetic makeup of the host plant species can structure the composition of root-inhabiting AMF communities. RESULTS: Our analysis revealed that population allelic richness was strongly positively correlated to relative population growth, whereas AMF richness and its interaction with population genetic diversity did not significantly contribute. The variation partitioning analysis showed that, after accounting for soil and spatial variables, the plant genetic makeup explained a small but significant part of the unique variation in AMF communities. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm that population genetic diversity can contribute to population recovery, highlighting the importance of within-species genetic diversity for the success of restoration. We could not find evidence, however, that population recovery benefits from the presence of more diverse AMF communities. Our analysis also showed that the genetic makeup of the host plant structured root-inhabiting AMF communities, suggesting that the plant genetic makeup may be linked to genes that control symbiosis development.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities in the Soils of Desert Habitats.

Deserts cover a significant proportion of the Earth's surface and continue to expand as a consequence of climate change. Mutualistic arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are functionally important plant root symbionts, and may be particularly important in drought stressed systems such as deserts. Here we provide a first molecular characterization of the AM fungi occurring in several desert ecosystems worldwide. We sequenced AM fungal DNA from soil samples collected from deserts in six different regions of the globe using the primer pair WANDA-AML2 with Illumina MiSeq. We recorded altogether 50 AM fungal phylotypes. Glomeraceae was the most common family, while Claroideoglomeraceae, Diversisporaceae and Acaulosporaceae were represented with lower frequency and abundance. The most diverse site, with 35 virtual taxa (VT), was in the Israeli Negev desert. Sites representing harsh conditions yielded relatively few reads and low richness estimates, for example, a Saudi Arabian desert site where only three Diversispora VT were recorded. The AM fungal taxa recorded in the desert soils are mostly geographically and ecologically widespread. However, in four sites out of six, communities comprised more desert-affiliated taxa (according to the MaarjAM database) than expected at random. AM fungal VT present in samples were phylogenetically clustered compared with the global taxon pool, suggesting that nonrandom assembly processes, notably habitat filtering, may have shaped desert fungal assemblages.

Community-level interactions between plants and soil biota during range expansion.

Plant species that expand their range in response to current climate change will encounter soil communities that may hinder, allow or even facilitate plant performance. It has been shown repeatedly for plant species originating from other continents that these plants are less hampered by soil communities from the new than from the original range. However, information about the interactions between intra-continental range expanders and soil communities is sparse, especially at community level.Here we used a plant-soil feedback experiment approach to examine if the interactions between range expanders and soil communities change during range expansion. We grew communities of range-expanding and native plant species with soil communities originating from the original and new range of range expanders. In these conditioned soils, we determined the composition of fungi and bacteria by high-throughput amplicon sequencing of the ITS region and the 16S rRNA gene respectively. Nematode community composition was determined by microscopy-based morphological identification. Then we tested how these soil communities influence the growth of subsequent communities of range expanders and natives.We found that after the conditioning phase soil bacterial, fungal and nematode communities differed by origin and by conditioning plant communities. Despite differences in bacterial, fungal and nematode communities between original and new range, soil origin did not influence the biomass production of plant communities. Both native and range expanding plant communities produced most above-ground biomass in soils that were conditioned by plant communities distantly related to them. Synthesis. Communities of range-expanding plant species shape specific soil communities in both original and new range soil. Plant-soil interactions of range expanders in communities can be similar to the ones of their closely related native plant species.

Range-expansion effects on the belowground plant microbiome.

Plant range expansion is occurring at a rapid pace, largely in response to human-induced climate warming. Although the movement of plants along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients is well-documented, effects on belowground microbial communities remain largely unknown. Furthermore, for range expansion, not all plant species are equal: in a new range, the relatedness between range-expanding plant species and native flora can influence plant-microorganism interactions. Here we use a latitudinal gradient spanning 3,000 km across Europe to examine bacterial and fungal communities in the rhizosphere and surrounding soils of range-expanding plant species. We selected range-expanding plants with and without congeneric native species in the new range and, as a control, the congeneric native species, totalling 382 plant individuals collected across Europe. In general, the status of a plant as a range-expanding plant was a weak predictor of the composition of bacterial and fungal communities. However, microbial communities of range-expanding plant species became more similar to each other further from their original range. Range-expanding plants that were unrelated to the native community also experienced a decrease in the ratio of plant pathogens to symbionts, giving weak support to the enemy release hypothesis. Even at a continental scale, the effects of plant range expansion on the belowground microbiome are detectable, although changes to specific taxa remain difficult to decipher.