High burden of clonal mast cell disorders and hereditary α-tryptasemia in patients who need Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: In patients who require venom immunotherapy (VIT), there is a need to identify underlying mast cell (MC) disorders since these may affect the risk and severity of future sting reactions and the long-term effectiveness of VIT. METHODS: 1319 individuals with Hymenoptera venom allergy (HVA) who needed VIT from referral centers in Slovenia, Austria, Croatia, and Poland underwent examination for KIT p.D816V in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) using a highly sensitive PCR test and tryptase genotyping by digital droplet PCR. We also included 183 control individuals with large local reactions (LLRs) to Hymenoptera stings and with asymptomatic sensitization to Hymenoptera venoms. RESULTS: 285 of 1319 individuals recommended for VIT (21.6%) were positive for KIT p.D816V in PBL, preferably those who present with severe reaction (33.9% [n = 207 of 610] with Ring-Messmer grade 3-4 vs. 11% [n = 78 of 709] with Grade 1-2; p < .0001), whereas only 1.3% (n = 2 of 152) of controls with LLR and none with asymptomatic sensitization (n = 31) had KIT p.D816V. KIT p.D816V allelic burden was higher in those with severe reaction (median 0.018% [n = 207] in Grade 3-4 vs. 0.001% [n = 78] in Grade 1-2; p < .0001), and the majority had normal baseline serum tryptase levels (69% [n = 196 of 285]). All KIT p.D816V-positive individuals (n = 41) who underwent bone marrow (BM) biopsy were found to have underlying clonal diseases, principally BM mastocytosis. HαT was also associated with severe HVA and symptoms (p < .01), and remarkably, 31.0% (n = 31 of 100) were found to have concomitant KIT p.D816V. Concomitant HαT and KIT p.D816V showed an additive effect, and having both was associated with the highest risk for severe HVA, even higher than having either HαT or KIT p.D816V alone (OR = 3.8; p < .01). CONCLUSIONS: By employing prospective universal tryptase genotyping and examination for KIT p.D816V in PBL in large HVA populations, we have demonstrated a high burden of clonal MC disorders and HαT in patients who require VIT.

Blood Transcriptomics Identifies Multiple Gene Expression Pathways Associated with the Clinical Efficacy of Hymenoptera Venom Immunotherapy.

Allergen-specific venom immunotherapy (VIT) is a well-established therapy for Hymenoptera venom allergy (HVA). However, the precise mechanism underlying its clinical effect remains uncertain. Our study aimed to identify the molecular mechanisms associated with VIT efficiency. We prospectively included 19 patients with HVA undergoing VIT (sampled before the beginning of VIT, after reaching the maintenance dose, one year after finishing VIT, and after a sting challenge) and 9 healthy controls. RNA sequencing of whole blood was performed on an Illumina sequencing platform. Longitudinal transcriptomic profiling revealed the importance of the inhibition of the NFκB pathway and the downregulation of DUX4 transcripts for the early protection and induction of tolerance after finishing VIT. Furthermore, successful treatment was associated with inhibiting Th2, Th17, and macrophage alternative signalling pathways in synergy with the inhibition of the PPAR pathway and further silencing of the Th2 response. The immune system became activated when reaching the maintenance dose and was suppressed after finishing VIT. Finally, successful VIT restores the immune system's balance to a state similar to that of healthy individuals. Our results underline the important role of the inhibition of four pathways in the clinical effect of VIT: Th2, Th17, NFκB, and macrophage signalling. Two biomarkers specific for successful VIT, regardless of the time of sampling, were C4BPA and RPS10-NUDT3 and should be further tested as potential biomarkers.

Clonal mast cell disorders and hereditary α-tryptasemia as risk factors for anaphylaxis.

The association between Hymenoptera venom-triggered anaphylaxis (HVA) and clonal mast cell-related disorders (cMCD) has been known for decades. However, recent breakthroughs in peripheral blood screening for KIT p.D816V missense variant have revealed the true extent of this clinical association whilst adding to our understanding of the underlying aetiology. Thus, recent large studies highlighted the presence of KIT p.D816V among 18.2% and 23% of patients with severe Hymenoptera venom-triggered anaphylaxis. A significant proportion of those patients have normal serum basal tryptase (BST) levels, with no cutaneous findings such as urticaria pigmentosa or other systemic findings such as organomegaly that would have suggested the presence of cMCD. These findings of an increased prevalence suggest that the impact of cMCD on anaphylaxis could be clinically underestimated and that the leading question for clinicians could be changed from 'how many patients with cMCD have anaphylaxis?' to 'how many patients with anaphylaxis have cMCD?'. The discovery of hereditary α-tryptasemia (HαT)-a genetic trait caused by an increased copy number of the Tryptase Alpha/Beta 1 (TPSAB1) gene-, first described in 2016, is now known to underlie the majority of cases of elevated BST outside of cMCD and chronic kidney disease. HαT is the first common heritable genetic modifier of anaphylaxis described, and it is associated with increased risk for severe HVA (relative risk = 2.0), idiopathic anaphylaxis, and an increased prevalence of anaphylaxis in patients with cMCD, possibly due to the unique activity profile of α/ß -tryptase heterotetramers that may potentiate immediate hypersensitivity reaction severity. Our narrative review aims to highlight recent research to have increased our understanding of cMCD and HαT, through recent lessons learned from studying their association with HVA. Additionally, we examined the studies of mast cell-related disorders in food and drug allergy in an effort to determine whether one should also consider cMCD and/or HαT in cases of severe anaphylaxis triggered by food or drugs.

Acute systemic myeloid inflammatory and stress response in severe food allergic reactions.

INTRODUCTION: Food allergic reactions can be severe and potentially life-threatening and the underlying immunological processes that contribute to the severity of reactions are poorly understood. The aim of this study is to integrate bulk RNA-sequencing of human and mouse peripheral blood mononuclear cells during food allergic reactions and in vivo mouse models of food allergy to identify dysregulated immunological processes associated with severe food allergic reactions. METHODS: Bulk transcriptomics of whole blood from human and mouse following food allergic reactions combined with integrative differential expressed gene bivariate and module eigengene network analyses to identify the whole blood transcriptome associated with food allergy severity. In vivo validation immune cell and gene expression in mice following IgE-mediated reaction. RESULTS: Bulk transcriptomics of whole blood from mice with different severity of food allergy identified gene ontology (GO) biological processes associated with innate and inflammatory immune responses, dysregulation of MAPK and NFkB signalling and identified 429 genes that correlated with reaction severity. Utilizing two independent human cohorts, we identified 335 genes that correlated with severity of peanut-induced food allergic reactions. Mapping mouse food allergy severity transcriptome onto the human transcriptome revealed 11 genes significantly dysregulated and correlated with severity. Analyses of whole blood from mice undergoing an IgE-mediated reaction revealed a rapid change in blood leukocytes particularly inflammatory monocytes (Ly6Chi Ly6G- ) and neutrophils that was associated with changes in CLEC4E, CD218A and GPR27 surface expression. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, IgE-mediated food allergy severity is associated with a rapid innate inflammatory response associated with acute cellular stress processes and dysregulation of peripheral blood inflammatory myeloid cell frequencies.

Ara h 2-specific IgE epitope-like peptides inhibit the binding of IgE to Ara h 2 and suppress lgE-dependent effector cell activation.

BACKGROUND: Clinical and experimental analyses indicate a pathognomonic role for allergen IgE crosslinking through epitope-paratope interactions as a major initial step in the cascade leading to effector cell activation and clinical manifestations of lgE-mediated food allergies. We aimed to undertake the initial development and assessment of Ara h 2-specific IgE epitope-like peptides that can bind to allergen-specific IgE paratopes and suppress effector cell activation. METHODS: We performed biopanning, screening, IgE binding, selection and mapping of peptides. We generated synthetic peptides for use in all functional experiments. ImmunoCAP inhibition, basophil and mast cell activation tests, with LAD2 cells, a human mast cell line were performed. Twenty-six children or young adults who had peanut allergy were studied. RESULTS: We identified and selected three linear peptides (DHPRFNRDNDVA, DHPRYGP and DHPRFST), and immunoblot analyses revealed binding to lgE from peanut-allergic individuals. The peptide sequences were aligned to the disordered region corresponding to the loop between helices 2 and 3 of Ara h 2, and conformational mapping showed that the peptides match the surface of Ara h 2 and h 6 but not other peanut allergens. In ImmunoCAP inhibition experiments, the peptides significantly inhibit the binding of IgE to Ara h 2 (p < .001). In basophil and mast cell activation tests, the peptides significantly suppressed Ara h 2-induced effector cell activation (p < .05) and increased the half-maximal Ara h 2 effective concentration (p < .05). Binding of the peptides to specific IgEs did not induce activation of basophils or mast cells. CONCLUSIONS: These studies show that the indicated peptides reduce the allergenic activity of Ara h 2 and suppress lgE-dependent basophil and mast cell activation. These observations may suggest a novel therapeutic strategy for food allergy based on epitope-paratop blocking.

Increased Focus on Internal Body Sensations Is Associated with Higher Patient-Perceived Severity of Allergic Rhinitis.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring allergic rhinitis (AR) severity with objective biomarkers is important for the clinical management of patients as well as for research purposes. The most commonly used tool for the assessment of AR severity is the Total Nasal Symptom Score (TNSS). Objective biomarkers like skin prick test size or specific IgE levels do not correlate with TNSS. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesize that the psychological factors are the missing link between patient-perceived severity of AR and objective biomarkers. METHOD: Thirty-nine patients (median age: 34 years; 21 [54%] female) with grass pollen-related AR were enrolled in our study. Patients allergic for perennial allergens and allergens with potentially overlapping seasons including cypress, ash/olive, plane, and nettle families were excluded. Patient-reported outcomes included symptom score, medication scores, combined score, and Juniper Mini Rhinitis Quality of Life Questionnaire (minRQLQ). Psychometric evaluation was performed using 5 different psychological questionnaires that measure 13 different psychological factors. RESULTS: There was a significant correlation between the symptom score and private body consciousness (r = 0.50, p = 0.001) and neuroticism (R = 0.41 and p = 0.01). There was also a statistically significant correlation between the combined score and private body consciousness (r = 0.49 and p = 0.001) and with perceiving and understanding emotions (r = 0.34 and p = 0.04). The miniRQLQ score had a positive correlation with private body consciousness (r = 0.55 and p = 0.002) and observing (r = 0.42 and p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that patients who are more aware of internal stimuli, as well as those who are highly self-conscious and somatically concerned tend to experience more severe AR symptoms.

Art v 1 IgE epitopes of patients and humanized mice are conformational.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, pollen of the weed mugwort (Artemisiavulgaris) is a major cause of severe respiratory allergy, with its major allergen, Art v 1, being the key pathogenic molecule for millions of patients. Humanized mice transgenic for a human T-cell receptor specific for the major Art v 1 T-cell epitope and the corresponding HLA have been made. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize IgE epitopes of Art v 1-sensitized patients and humanized mice for molecular immunotherapy of mugwort allergy. METHODS: Four overlapping peptides incorporating surface-exposed amino acids representing the full-length Art v 1 sequence were synthesized and used to search for IgE reactivity to sequential epitopes. For indirect mapping, peptide-specific rabbit antibodies were raised to block IgE against surface-exposed epitopes on folded Art v 1. IgE reactivity and basophil activation studies were performed in clinically defined mugwort-allergic patients. Secondary structure of recombinant (r) Art v 1 and peptides was determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy. RESULTS: Mugwort-allergic patients and humanized mice sensitized by allergen inhalation showed IgE reactivity and/or basophil activation mainly to folded, complete Art v 1 but not to unfolded, sequential peptide epitopes. Blocking of allergic patients' IgE with peptide-specific rabbit antisera identified a hitherto unknown major conformational IgE binding site in the C-terminal Art v 1 domain. CONCLUSIONS: Identification of the new major conformational IgE binding site on Art v 1, which can be blocked with IgG raised against non-IgE reactive Art v 1 peptides, is an important basis for the development of a hypoallergenic peptide vaccine for mugwort allergy.

Transcriptomic Differentiation of Phenotypes in Chronic Rhinosinusitis and Its Implications for Understanding the Underlying Mechanisms.

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is a multifaceted disease with variable clinical courses and outcomes. We aimed to determine CRS-associated nasal-tissue transcriptome in clinically well-characterized and phenotyped individuals, to gain a novel insight into the biological pathways of the disease. RNA-sequencing of tissue samples of patients with CRS with polyps (CRSwNP), without polyps (CRSsNP), and controls were performed. Characterization of differently expressed genes (DEGs) and functional and pathway analysis was undertaken. We identified 782 common CRS-associated nasal-tissue DEGs, while 375 and 328 DEGs were CRSwNP- and CRSsNP-specific, respectively. Common key DEGs were found to be involved in dendritic cell maturation, the neuroinflammation pathway, and the inhibition of the matrix metalloproteinases. Distinct CRSwNP-specific DEGs were involved in NF-kß canonical pathways, Toll-like receptor signaling, HIF1α regulation, and the Th2 pathway. CRSsNP involved the NFAT pathway and changes in the calcium pathway. Our findings offer new insights into the common and distinct molecular mechanisms underlying CRSwNP and CRSsNP, providing further understanding of the complex pathophysiology of the CRS, with future research directions for novel treatment strategies.

Fatal Hymenoptera Venom-Triggered Anaphylaxis in Patients with Unrecognized Clonal Mast Cell Disorder-Is Mastocytosis to Blame?

Hymenoptera venom-triggered anaphylaxis (HVA) affects up to 8.9% of the general population and is the most frequent cause of anaphylaxis in adults, accounting for approximately 20% of all fatal anaphylaxis cases. Quite often, a fatal reaction is a victim's first manifestation of HVA. Mastocytosis represents one of the most important risk factors for severe HVA. We analyzed patients with documented fatal HVA for the presence of underlying clonal mast cell disorder (cMCD). Here, we report three cases of fatal HVA, with undiagnosed underlying cMCD identified by the presence of the peripheral blood and/or bone marrow KIT p.D816V missense variant postmortem. In the first case, anaphylaxis was the initial episode and was fatal. In the other two cases, both patients were treated with specific venom immunotherapy (VIT), nevertheless, one died of HVA after VIT discontinuation, and the other during VIT; both patients had cardiovascular comorbidities and were taking beta-blockers and/or ACE inhibitors. Our results point to the importance of screening all high-risk individuals for underlying cMCD using highly sensitive molecular methods for peripheral blood KIT p.D816V variant detection, including severe HVA and possibly beekeepers, for proper management and the need for lifelong VIT to prevent unnecessary deaths. Patients at the highest risk of fatal HVA, with concomitant cardiovascular and cMCD comorbidities, might not be protected from field stings even during regular VIT. Therefore, two adrenaline autoinjectors and lifelong VIT, and possibly cotreatment with omalizumab, should be considered for high-risk patients to prevent fatal HVA episodes.

Risk Factors for Anaphylaxis in Children Allergic to Peanuts.

Background and Objectives: A peanut allergy is the most common single cause of anaphylaxis in children. The risk factors for anaphylaxis in children with a peanut allergy are not well defined. Therefore, we aimed to identify epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics of children with a peanut allergy that may predict the severity of the allergic reaction and anaphylaxis. Materials and Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study and included 94 children with a peanut allergy. Allergy testing was performed, including skin prick testing and the determination of specific IgE levels to peanuts and their Ara h2 component. In case of discordance between patient history and allergy testing, an oral food challenge with peanuts was performed. Results: Anaphylaxis and moderate and mild reactions to peanuts occurred in 33 (35.1%), 30 (31.9%), and 31 (33.0%) patients, respectively. The severity of the allergic reaction was only weakly correlated (p = 0.04) with the amount of peanuts consumed. The median number of allergic reactions to peanuts was 2 in children with anaphylaxis compared to 1 in other patients (p = 0.04). The median level of specific IgE to Ara h2 was 5.3 IU/mL in children with anaphylaxis compared to 0.6 IU/mL and 10.3 IU/mL in children with mild and moderate peanut allergies (p = 0.06). The optimal cutoff for distinguishing between anaphylaxis and a less severe allergic reaction to peanuts was a specific IgE Ara h2 level of 0.92 IU/mL with 90% sensitivity and 47.5% specificity for predicting anaphylaxis (p = 0.04). Conclusions: Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of the patient cannot predict the severity of the allergic reaction to peanuts in children. Even standard allergy testing, including component diagnostics, is a relatively poor predictor of the severity of an allergic reaction to peanuts. Therefore, more accurate predictive models, including new diagnostic tools, are needed to reduce the need for oral food challenge in most patients.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in malignant pleural mesothelioma: prediction of outcome based on DCE-MRI measurements in patients undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy.

BACKGROUND: The malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) response rate to chemotherapy is low. The identification of imaging biomarkers that could help guide the most effective therapy approach for individual patients is highly desirable. Our aim was to investigate the dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MR parameters as predictors for progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in patients with MPM treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy. METHODS: Thirty-two consecutive patients with MPM were enrolled in this prospective study. Pretreatment and intratreatment DCE-MRI were scheduled in each patient. The DCE parameters were analyzed using the extended Tofts (ET) and the adiabatic approximation tissue homogeneity (AATH) model. Comparison analysis, logistic regression and ROC analysis were used to identify the predictors for the patient's outcome. RESULTS: Patients with higher pretreatment ET and AATH-calculated Ktrans and ve values had longer OS (P≤.006). Patients with a more prominent reduction in ET-calculated Ktrans and kep values during the early phase of chemotherapy had longer PFS (P =.008). No parameter was identified to predict PFS. Pre-treatment ET-calculated Ktrans was found to be an independent predictive marker for longer OS (P=.02) demonstrating the most favourable discrimination performance compared to other DCE parameters with an estimated sensitivity of 89% and specificity of 78% (AUC 0.9, 95% CI 0.74-0.98, cut off > 0.08 min-1). CONCLUSIONS: In the present study, higher pre-treatment ET-calculated Ktrans values were associated with longer OS. The results suggest that DCE-MRI might provide additional information for identifying MPM patients that may respond to chemotherapy.

Solid cancer patients achieve adequate immunogenicity and low rate of severe adverse events after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination.

Background: SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in cancer patients is crucial to prevent severe COVID-19 disease course. Methods: This study assessed immunogenicity of cancer patients on active treatment receiving mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccine by detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG antibodies in serum, before, after the first and second doses and 3 months after a complete primary course of vaccination. Results were compared with healthy controls. Results: Of 112 patients, the seroconversion rate was 96%. A significant reduction in antibody levels was observed 3 months after vaccination in patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitors versus control participants (p < 0.001). Adverse events were mostly mild. Conclusion: Immunogenicity after mRNA-based vaccine in cancer patients is adequate but influenced by the type of anticancer therapy. Antibody levels decline after 3 months, and thus a third vaccination is warranted.

Because cancer patients are especially endangered by SARS-CoV-2 infection and have worse disease course and outcomes, it is crucial to protect them from this infection. This study was aimed at assessing protective antibodies after patients received mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Protective antibodies (e.g., anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG antibodies) were assessed in patients' blood before vaccination, after the first and second doses and 3 months after a complete primary course vaccination. Patients' oncological treatment was unaffected by the vaccination received. The results of protective antibodies were also compared with healthy control subjects who were vaccinated in the same manner. More than 110 cancer patients participated and agreed to have their blood samples analyzed. The rate of antibody production was 96% after a complete primary course of vaccination and was similar with that of healthy control subjects. However, there were some differences noted regarding the oncological treatment that the patients were receiving, with patients who were treated with targeted therapy achieving the highest levels of protective antibodies. Adverse events after vaccination were mostly mild and did not interfere with patients' general performance. The rate of antibody production for cancer patients after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination is high and similar to that in healthy control subjects but varies with regard to the oncological treatment that patients are receiving. However, antibodies decline substantially after 3 months, and thus a third vaccination is desirable. There were no new safety concerns after vaccination, and most adverse events were mild and short-lived.

Heritable risk for severe anaphylaxis associated with increased α-tryptase-encoding germline copy number at TPSAB1.

BACKGROUND: An elevated basal serum tryptase level is associated with severe systemic anaphylaxis, most notably caused by Hymenoptera envenomation. Although clonal mast cell disease is the culprit in some individuals, it does not fully explain this clinical association. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine the prevalence and associated impact of tryptase genotypes on anaphylaxis in humans. METHODS: Cohorts with systemic mastocytosis (SM) and venom as well as idiopathic anaphylaxis from referral centers in Italy, Slovenia, and the United States, underwent tryptase genotyping by droplet digital PCR. Associated anaphylaxis severity (Mueller scale) was subsequently examined. Healthy volunteers and controls with nonatopic disease were recruited and tryptase was genotyped by droplet digital PCR and in silico analysis of genome sequence, respectively. The effects of pooled and recombinant human tryptases, protease activated receptor 2 agonist and antagonist peptides, and a tryptase-neutralizing mAb on human umbilical vein endothelial cell permeability were assayed using a Transwell system. RESULTS: Hereditary α-tryptasemia (HαT)-a genetic trait caused by increased α-tryptase-encoding Tryptase-α/ß1 (TPSAB1) copy number resulting in elevated BST level-was common in healthy individuals (5.6% [n = 7 of 125]) and controls with nonatopic disease (5.3% [n = 21 of 398]). HαT was associated with grade IV venom anaphylaxis (relative risk = 2.0; P < .05) and more prevalent in both idiopathic anaphylaxis (n = 8 of 47; [17%; P = .006]) and SM (n = 10 of 82 [12.2%; P = .03]) relative to the controls. Among patients with SM, concomitant HαT was associated with increased risk for systemic anaphylaxis (relative risk = 9.5; P = .007). In vitro, protease-activated receptor-2-dependent vascular permeability was induced by pooled mature tryptases but not α- or ß-tryptase homotetramers. CONCLUSIONS: Risk for severe anaphylaxis in humans is associated with inherited differences in α-tryptase-encoding copies at TPSAB1.

Routine KIT p.D816V screening identifies clonal mast cell disease in patients with Hymenoptera allergy regularly missed using baseline tryptase levels alone.

BACKGROUND: Clonal mast cell disorders and elevated basal serum tryptase (BST) levels with unknown cause(s) are associated with severe Hymenoptera venom-triggered anaphylaxis (HVA). However, some individuals with clonal disease have a normal BST level (<11.4 ng/mL). OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to evaluate whether screening for KIT p.D816V in the blood is a useful clinical tool to risk-stratify patients with venom allergy. METHODS: We prospectively recruited 374 patients with Hymenoptera allergy and no overt signs of mastocytosis who were referred to our center during the years 2018 and 2019. KIT p.D816V was determined in their peripheral blood by quantitative PCR, and tryptase genotyping was performed by droplet digital PCR. RESULTS: In all, 351 patients (93.9%) had normal levels of BST, and KIT p.D816V was detected in 8% of patients (28 of 351), predominantly in patients with the most severe Mueller grade IV anaphylaxis (18.2% [24 of 132] vs 1.8% in patients with lower grades [4 of 88 with grade III and 0 of 131 with other grades]; P < .001). In grade IV patients with a normal BST level, KIT p.D816V was associated with more severe symptoms, including a significantly higher frequency of loss of consciousness (58.3% [14 of 24] vs 34.3% [37 of 108]; P = .03) and absence of skin symptoms (41.7% [10 of 24] vs 15.7% [17 of 108]; P = .004). Among patients with a normal BST level, KIT p.D816V (OR = 10.25 [95% CI = 3.75-36.14]; P < .0001) was the major risk factor associated with severe HVA. Hereditary α-tryptasemia (HαT) due to increased germline copies of TPSAB1 encoding α-tryptase was the most common cause (65.2% [15 of 23]) of elevated BST level in patients with HVA, and together with KIT p.D816V, it accounted for 90% of BST level elevations (20 of 23) in patients with HVA. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that routine KIT p.D816V screening identifies clonal disease in high-risk patients with HVA who are regularly missed when BST level is used alone.

Clinical relevance of inherited genetic differences in human tryptases: Hereditary alpha-tryptasemia and beyond.

OBJECTIVE: To describe our current understanding of hereditary α-tryptasemia (HαT), how HαT fits into the evolutionary context of tryptases and contemporary framework of mast cell-associated disorders, and to discuss the future clinical and therapeutic landscape for symptomatic individuals with HαT. DATA SOURCES: Primary peer-reviewed literature. STUDY SELECTIONS: Basic, clinical, and translational studies describing tryptase gene composition, generation, secretion, and elevation and the associated clinical impacts of HαT and treatment of such individuals were reviewed. RESULTS: HαT is a common autosomal dominant genetic trait caused by increased TPSAB1 copy number encoding α-tryptase. Approximately 1 in 20 White individuals have HαT, making it by far the most common cause for elevated basal serum tryptase levels. Although many individuals with HαT may not manifest associated symptoms, the prevalence of HαT is increased in patients with clonal and nonclonal mast cell-associated disorders wherein it is linked to more prevalent and/or severe anaphylaxis and increased mast cell mediator-associated symptoms. Increased generation of mature α/ß-tryptase heterotetramers, and their unique physiochemical properties, may be responsible for some of these clinical findings. CONCLUSION: HαT is a common modifier of mast cell-associated disorders and reactions. Nevertheless, whether HαT may be an independent cause of clinical phenotypes with which it has been associated remains unproven. Correct identification of HαT is critical to accurate interpretation of serum tryptase levels in the clinical evaluation of patients. Beyond HαT, we foresee tryptase genotyping as an important parameter in the standard workup of patients with mast cell-associated disorders and development of therapeutic modalities targeting these patients and associated clinical phenotypes.

Correlations between vitreous cytokine levels and inflammatory cells in fibrovascular membranes of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the levels of cytokines in the vitreous, and their correlation with the density of inflammatory cells in fibrovascular membranes (FVMs) in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) to evaluate intraocular inflammatory conditions with regard to disease activity. Methods: Thirty-three patients (33 eyes) with PDR requiring vitreoretinal surgery because of FVMs and tractional detachment were enrolled in the study, and compared with 20 patients (20 eyes) with macular hole (MH; control group). All patients underwent complete ophthalmological examinations before surgery. The activity of the disease was noted in patients with PDR. Samples of vitreous and blood were taken, and cytokine (MCP-1, IL-8, IL-6, VEGF, IL-1ß, TNF-α, MIP-1α, MIP-1ß, IL-10, and IL-12) levels were measured using cytometric bead array (CBA). Samples of FVMs were analyzed with immunohistochemical methods for the presence of inflammatory cells (CD45+, CD14+, CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, and CD19+ cells), and the numerical areal density was calculated (NA). Spearman's correlation was used to assess the association between variables. The Mann-Whitney test was used to assess the differences between independent groups. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for assessing differences between two related groups. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Patients with active PDR had statistically significantly higher levels of MCP-1 (p = 0.003), VEGF (p = 0.009), and IL-8 (p = 0.02) in the vitreous in comparison with those with inactive PDR. CD45+, CD14+, CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, and CD19+ cells were identified in FVMs for patients with PDR. Statistically significantly higher numerical areal density of T lymphocytes (CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+) was demonstrated in patients with active PDR in comparison with patients with inactive PDR. Moderate to strong correlations were found between either MCP-1 or IL-8 in the vitreous, and the numerical areal density of cells (CD45+, CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+) in the FVMs, and weaker between either MCP-1 or IL-8 in the vitreous and the numerical areal density of CD14+ cells in the FVMs. Conclusions: The correlation of cytokine (MCP-1 and IL-8) vitreous levels with the density of inflammatory cells in FVMs, and differences in cytokine levels in the vitreous between patients with active and inactive PDR, and between the vitreous and serum in PDR indicate the importance of local intraocular inflammation in patients with PDR.

Clinical and immunological differences between asymptomatic HDM-sensitized and HDM-allergic rhinitis patients.

BACKGROUND: Confirmation of the clinical relevance of sensitisation is important for the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the usefulness of an in vitro basophil activation test and component-resolved diagnosis in distinguishing between symptomatic allergic rhinitis patients and asymptomatic sensitization to house dust mites (HDMs). METHODS: Thirty-six subjects with a positive skin prick test (SPT) for HDM were divided into a symptomatic (n = 17) and an asymptomatic (n = 19) group on the basis of their clinical history and a nasal provocation test. A basophil CD63 response to in vitro stimulation with Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus whole allergen extract and the IgE reactivity profiles for Der p 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 21, 23 were evaluated. Serum IgE and IgG specific to D pteronyssinus whole allergen extract and total IgE were measured. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in the levels of IgE (IgE levels were higher in symptomatic patients with P = 0.055) and IgG specific to D pteronyssinus and total IgE. Symptomatic patients showed a lower threshold for in vitro basophil activation (3.33 ng/mL vs 33.3 ng/mL), a higher area under the curve (AUC) of basophil activation (171 vs 127) (P = 0.017), a higher response to positive control with anti-FcεRI stimulation (97% vs 79%) (P < 0.001), a recognition of more HDM allergens (4 vs 2) and more frequent sensitization to rDer p 7 (P = 0.016) and rDer p 23 compared to asymptomatic subjects (P = 0.018). There was a positive correlation (r = 0.63; P < 0.001) between the number of recognized allergens and the AUC of basophil activation. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In the subjects studied, the differences in the basophil response to D pteronyssinus allergen extract, number of recognized HDM allergens and reactivity to rDer p 7 and rDer p 23 distinguish symptomatic from asymptomatic HDM sensitisation better than SPT or allergen extract-specific IgE. Information regarding the clinical relevance of sensitization is important for the prescription of allergen-specific immunotherapy.

Mast cell activation test in the diagnosis of allergic disease and anaphylaxis.

BACKGROUND: Food allergy is an increasing public health issue and the most common cause of life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. Conventional allergy tests assess for the presence of allergen-specific IgE, significantly overestimating the rate of true clinical allergy and resulting in overdiagnosis and adverse effect on health-related quality of life. OBJECTIVE: To undertake initial validation and assessment of a novel diagnostic tool, we used the mast cell activation test (MAT). METHODS: Primary human blood-derived mast cells (MCs) were generated from peripheral blood precursors, sensitized with patients' sera, and then incubated with allergen. MC degranulation was assessed by means of flow cytometry and mediator release. We compared the diagnostic performance of MATs with that of existing diagnostic tools to assess in a cohort of peanut-sensitized subjects undergoing double-blind, placebo-controlled challenge. RESULTS: Human blood-derived MCs sensitized with sera from patients with peanut, grass pollen, and Hymenoptera (wasp venom) allergy demonstrated allergen-specific and dose-dependent degranulation, as determined based on both expression of surface activation markers (CD63 and CD107a) and functional assays (prostaglandin D2 and ß-hexosaminidase release). In this cohort of peanut-sensitized subjects, the MAT was found to have superior discrimination performance compared with other testing modalities, including component-resolved diagnostics and basophil activation tests. Using functional principle component analysis, we identified 5 clusters or patterns of reactivity in the resulting dose-response curves, which at preliminary analysis corresponded to the reaction phenotypes seen at challenge. CONCLUSION: The MAT is a robust tool that can confer superior diagnostic performance compared with existing allergy diagnostics and might be useful to explore differences in effector cell function between basophils and MCs during allergic reactions.

The Variants in the 3' Untranslated Region of the Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 Gene as Modulators of Treatment Outcome in Children with Asthma.

PURPOSE: The maintaining of asthma control is difficult due to high variability in response to therapy among patients. Since matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) is implicated in inflammation and remodeling of asthmatic airways, it could be associated with adequate response to asthma therapy. The aim of this study was to investigate whether variants in 3' end of the MMP9 gene are associated with clinical phenotype and responsiveness to treatment in children with asthma. METHODS: The study included 127 asthmatic children from Slovenia. Variants in the 3' end of the MMP9 gene were analyzed by direct DNA sequencing and the obtained results were correlated with clinical parameters. RESULTS: Two variants were detected, rs13925 and rs20544. For the variant rs20544, statistically significant difference in airway hyperresponsiveness (p = 0.011) and asthma control (p = 0.049) between genotypes was found. Patients with TT genotype had lower airway sensitivity, and after 12 months of treatment showed significant improvement in Asthma Control Test (ACT) scores compared to CC and CT genotype. For the variant rs13925, the association with lung function was observed. The carriers of A allele showed noticeable improvement of lung function after the first 6 months of treatment in comparison to the carriers of G allele (p = 0.046). CONCLUSION: The main finding of our study is the association of MMP9 genotypes rs20544 TT and rs13925 AA and AG with better asthma control, and indirectly better response to treatment. Based on these results, MMP9 deserves further research as a potential predictive biomarker for asthma.