Saturated very long chain fatty acids are required for the production of infectious human cytomegalovirus progeny.

Human cytomegalovirus hijacks host cell metabolism, increasing the flux of carbon from glucose to malonyl-CoA, the committed precursor to fatty acid synthesis and elongation. Inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase blocks the production of progeny virus. To probe further the role of fatty acid metabolism during infection, we performed an siRNA screen to identify host cell metabolic enzymes needed for the production of infectious cytomegalovirus progeny. The screen predicted that multiple long chain acyl-CoA synthetases and fatty acid elongases are needed during infection, and the levels of RNAs encoding several of these enzymes were upregulated by the virus. Roles for acyl-CoA synthetases and elongases during infection were confirmed by using small molecule antagonists. Consistent with a role for these enzymes, mass spectrometry-based fatty acid analysis with ¹³C-labeling revealed that malonyl-CoA is consumed by elongases to produce very long chain fatty acids, generating an approximately 8-fold increase in C26-C34 fatty acid tails in infected cells. The virion envelope was yet further enriched in C26-C34 saturated fatty acids, and elongase inhibitors caused the production of virions with lower levels of these fatty acids and markedly reduced infectivity. These results reveal a dependence of cytomegalovirus on very long chain fatty acid metabolism.

A ubiquitin-specific protease possesses a decisive role for adenovirus replication and oncogene-mediated transformation.

Adenoviral replication depends on viral as well as cellular proteins. However, little is known about cellular proteins promoting adenoviral replication. In our screens to identify such proteins, we discovered a cellular component of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway interacting with the central regulator of adenoviral replication. Our binding assays mapped a specific interaction between the N-terminal domains of both viral E1B-55K and USP7, a deubiquitinating enzyme. RNA interference-mediated downregulation of USP7 severely reduced E1B-55K protein levels, but more importantly negatively affected adenoviral replication. We also succeeded in resynthesizing an inhibitor of USP7, which like the knockdown background reduced adenoviral replication. Further assays revealed that not only adenoviral growth, but also adenoviral oncogene-driven cellular transformation relies on the functions of USP7. Our data provide insights into an intricate mechanistic pathway usurped by an adenovirus to promote its replication and oncogenic functions, and at the same time open up possibilities for new antiviral strategies.

The human adenovirus type 5 E1B 55-kilodalton protein is phosphorylated by protein kinase CK2.

The human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV5) early region 1B 55-kDa protein (E1B-55K) is a multifunctional phosphoprotein playing several critical roles during adenoviral productive infection, e.g., degradation of host cell proteins, viral late mRNA export, and inhibition of p53-mediated transcription. Many of these functions are apparently regulated at least in part by the phosphorylation of E1B-55K occurring at a stretch of amino acids resembling a potential CK2 consensus phosphorylation motif. We therefore investigated the potential role of CK2 phosphorylation upon E1B-55K during adenoviral infection. A phosphonegative E1B-55K mutant showed severely reduced virus progeny production, although viral early, late, and structural protein levels and viral DNA replication were not obviously affected. Binding studies revealed an interaction between the CK2α catalytic subunit and wild-type E1B-55K, which is severely impaired in the phosphonegative E1B mutant. In addition, in situ the α-catalytic subunit is redistributed into ring-like structures surrounding E1B-55K nuclear areas and distinct cytoplasmic accumulations, where a significant amount of CK2α colocalizes with E1B-55K. Furthermore, in in vitro phosphorylation assays, wild-type E1B-55K glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins were readily phosphorylated by the CK2α subunit but inefficiently phosphorylated by the CK2 holoenzyme. Addition of the CK2-specific inhibitors TBB (4,5,6,7-tetrabromobenzotriazole) and DMAT (2-dimethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole) to infected cells confirmed that CK2α binding to E1B-55K is necessary for efficient phosphorylation of E1B-55K. In summary, our data show that CK2α interacts with and phosphorylates HAdV5 E1B-55K at residues S490/491 and T495 and that these posttranslational modifications are essential for E1B-55K lytic functions.

Divergent effects of human cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus-1 on cellular metabolism.

Viruses rely on the metabolic network of the host cell to provide energy and macromolecular precursors to fuel viral replication. Here we used mass spectrometry to examine the impact of two related herpesviruses, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), on the metabolism of fibroblast and epithelial host cells. Each virus triggered strong metabolic changes that were conserved across different host cell types. The metabolic effects of the two viruses were, however, largely distinct. HCMV but not HSV-1 increased glycolytic flux. HCMV profoundly increased TCA compound levels and flow of two carbon units required for TCA cycle turning and fatty acid synthesis. HSV-1 increased anapleurotic influx to the TCA cycle through pyruvate carboxylase, feeding pyrimidine biosynthesis. Thus, these two related herpesviruses drive diverse host cells to execute distinct, virus-specific metabolic programs. Current drugs target nucleotide metabolism for treatment of both viruses. Although our results confirm that this is a robust target for HSV-1, therapeutic interventions at other points in metabolism might prove more effective for treatment of HCMV.

A Single Amino Acid Switch in the Adenoviral DNA Binding Protein Abrogates Replication Center Formation and Productive Viral Infection.

Adenoviruses are very efficient high-capacity vaccine vectors and are common gene delivery systems. Despite their extensive use in preclinical models and clinical trials over the past decades, adenoviral vectors still require optimization. To achieve that, more thorough characterizations of adenoviral genes and gene products, as well as pathogen-host interactions, are indispensable. The adenoviral DNA binding protein (DBP) is a key regulatory protein involved in various cellular and viral processes. Here, we show that single amino acid exchange mutations in human adenovirus C5 (HAdV-C5) DBP strongly influence adenoviral replication by altering interaction with the cellular ubiquitination machinery. Specifically, phenotypic analyses of DBP mutants demonstrate that single amino acid substitutions can regulate interactions with the cellular USP7 deubiquitinase, impede viral DNA synthesis, and completely abolish viral late protein expression and progeny production. Importantly, cells infected with the DBP mutant UBM5 consistently lack DBP-positive replication centers (RCs), which are usually formed during the transition from the early to the late phase of infection. Our findings demonstrate that DBP regulates a key step at the onset of the late phase of infection and that this activity is unambiguously linked to the formation and integrity of viral RCs. These data provide the experimental basis for future work that targets DBP and its interference with the formation of viral RCs during productive infection. Consequently, this work will have immediate impact on DNA virus and adenovirus research in general and, potentially, also on safety optimization of existing and development of novel adenoviral vectors and anti-adenoviral compounds. IMPORTANCE To further understand the biology of human adenoviruses (HAdVs) and to optimize HAdVs for use in prophylactic and therapeutic therapies, a thorough understanding of key viral proteins is paramount. As one of the essential HAdV proteins, the DNA binding protein DBP plays important roles in various steps of the viral replication cycle. In this work, we aimed at deciphering the role of single amino acid exchange mutations in the HAdV-C5 DBP on interaction with the cellular deubiquitinase USP7 and regulation of viral replication. We identify interaction with USP7, viral replication center formation, and viral progeny production as potently regulated steps of the viral life cycle that are affected by these few and distinct mutations in DBP.

Sirtuins are evolutionarily conserved viral restriction factors.

UNLABELLED: The seven human sirtuins are a family of ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily conserved NAD(+)-dependent deacylases/mono-ADP ribosyltransferases that regulate numerous cellular and organismal functions, including metabolism, cell cycle, and longevity. Here, we report the discovery that all seven sirtuins have broad-range antiviral properties. We demonstrate that small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of individual sirtuins and drug-mediated inhibition of sirtuin enzymatic activity increase the production of virus progeny in infected human cells. This impact on virus growth is observed for both DNA and RNA viruses. Importantly, sirtuin-activating drugs inhibit the replication of diverse viruses, as we demonstrate for human cytomegalovirus, a slowly replicating DNA virus, and influenza A (H1N1) virus, an RNA virus that multiplies rapidly. Furthermore, sirtuin defense functions are evolutionarily conserved, since CobB, the sirtuin homologue in Escherichia coli, protects against bacteriophages. Altogether, our findings establish sirtuins as broad-spectrum and evolutionarily conserved components of the immune defense system, providing a framework for elucidating a new set of host cell defense mechanisms and developing sirtuin modulators with antiviral activity. IMPORTANCE: We live in a sea of viruses, some of which are human pathogens. These pathogenic viruses exhibit numerous differences: DNA or RNA genomes, enveloped or naked virions, nuclear or cytoplasmic replication, diverse disease symptoms, etc. Most antiviral drugs target specific viral proteins. Consequently, they often work for only one virus, and their efficacy can be compromised by the rapid evolution of resistant variants. There is a need for the identification of host proteins with broad-spectrum antiviral functions, which provide effective targets for therapeutic treatments that limit the evolution of viral resistance. Here, we report that sirtuins present such an opportunity for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral treatments, since our findings highlight these enzymes as ancient defense factors that protect against a variety of viral pathogens.