RESUMO
GPR4 is a proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptor that can be activated by extracellular acidosis. It has recently been demonstrated that activation of GPR4 by acidosis increases the expression of numerous inflammatory and stress response genes in vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and also augments EC-leukocyte adhesion. Inhibition of GPR4 by siRNA or small molecule inhibitors reduces endothelial cell inflammation. As acidotic tissue microenvironments exist in many types of inflammatory disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), we examined the role of GPR4 in intestinal inflammation using a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute colitis mouse model. We observed that GPR4 mRNA expression was increased in mouse and human IBD tissues when compared to control intestinal tissues. To determine the function of GPR4 in intestinal inflammation, wild-type and GPR4-deficient mice were treated with 3% DSS for 7days to induce acute colitis. Our results showed that the severity of colitis was decreased in GPR4-deficient DSS-treated mice in comparison to wild-type DSS-treated mice. Clinical parameters, macroscopic disease indicators, and histopathological features were less severe in the DSS-treated GPR4-deficient mice than the DSS-treated wild-type mice. Endothelial adhesion molecule expression, leukocyte infiltration, and isolated lymphoid follicle (ILF) formation were reduced in intestinal tissues of DSS-treated GPR4-null mice. Collectively, our results suggest GPR4 provides a pro-inflammatory role in the inflamed gut as the absence of GPR4 ameliorates intestinal inflammation in the acute experimental colitis mouse model.
Assuntos
Colite/genética , Colite/patologia , Colo/patologia , Deleção de Genes , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/genética , Doença Aguda , Animais , Ceco/metabolismo , Ceco/patologia , Colite/induzido quimicamente , Colo/metabolismo , Sulfato de Dextrana , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Regulação para CimaRESUMO
Acidosis commonly exists in the tissue microenvironment of various pathophysiological conditions such as tumors, inflammation, ischemia, metabolic disease, and respiratory disease. For instance, the tumor microenvironment is characterized by acidosis and hypoxia due to tumor heterogeneity, aerobic glycolysis (the "Warburg effect"), and the defective vasculature that cannot efficiently deliver oxygen and nutrients or remove metabolic acid byproduct. How the acidic microenvironment affects the function of blood vessels, however, is not well defined. GPR4 (G protein-coupled receptor 4) is a member of the proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptors and it has high expression in endothelial cells (ECs). We have previously reported that acidosis induces a broad inflammatory response in ECs. Acidosis also increases the expression of several endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response genes such as CHOP (C/EBP homologous protein) and ATF3 (activating transcription factor 3). In the current study, we have examined acidosis/GPR4- induced ER stress pathways in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and other types of ECs. All three arms of the ER stress/unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways were activated by acidosis in ECs as an increased expression of phosphorylated eIF2α (eukaryotic initiation factor 2α), phosphorylated IRE1α (inositol-requiring enzyme 1α), and cleaved ATF6 upon acidic pH treatment was observed. The expression of other downstream mediators of the UPR, such as ATF4, ATF3, and spliced XBP-1 (X box-binding protein 1), was also induced by acidosis. Through genetic and pharmacological approaches to modulate the expression level or activity of GPR4 in HUVEC, we found that GPR4 plays an important role in mediating the ER stress response induced by acidosis. As ER stress/UPR can cause inflammation and cell apoptosis, acidosis/GPR4-induced ER stress pathways in ECs may regulate vascular growth and inflammatory response in the acidic microenvironment.
Assuntos
Acidose/metabolismo , Estresse do Retículo Endoplasmático , Células Endoteliais da Veia Umbilical Humana/metabolismo , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais , Acidose/complicações , Acidose/genética , Estresse do Retículo Endoplasmático/efeitos dos fármacos , Estresse do Retículo Endoplasmático/genética , Técnicas de Silenciamento de Genes , Células Endoteliais da Veia Umbilical Humana/efeitos dos fármacos , Humanos , Concentração de Íons de Hidrogênio , Hipercapnia/complicações , Hipercapnia/genética , Modelos Biológicos , Proteínas Mutantes/metabolismo , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , RNA Interferente Pequeno/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais/efeitos dos fármacos , Transdução de Sinais/genética , Bibliotecas de Moléculas Pequenas/farmacologia , Resposta a Proteínas não Dobradas/efeitos dos fármacos , Resposta a Proteínas não Dobradas/genéticaRESUMO
GPR4 is a pH-sensing G protein-coupled receptor highly expressed in vascular endothelial cells and can be activated by protons in the inflamed tissue microenvironment. Herein, we report that acidosis-induced GPR4 activation increases paracellular gap formation and permeability of vascular endothelial cells through the Gα12/13/Rho GTPase signaling pathway. Evaluation of GPR4 in the inflammatory response using the acute hindlimb ischemia-reperfusion mouse model revealed that GPR4 mediates tissue edema, inflammatory exudate formation, endothelial adhesion molecule expression, and leukocyte infiltration in the inflamed tissue. Genetic knockout and pharmacologic inhibition of GPR4 alleviate tissue inflammation. These results suggest GPR4 is a pro-inflammatory receptor and could be targeted for therapeutic intervention.