Immune surveillance and therapy of lymphomas driven by Epstein-Barr virus protein LMP1 in a mouse model.

B cells infected by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a transforming virus endemic in humans, are rapidly cleared by the immune system, but some cells harboring the virus persist for life. Under conditions of immunosuppression, EBV can spread from these cells and cause life-threatening pathologies. We have generated mice expressing the transforming EBV latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), mimicking a constitutively active CD40 coreceptor, specifically in B cells. Like human EBV-infected cells, LMP1+ B cells were efficiently eliminated by T cells, and breaking immune surveillance resulted in rapid, fatal lymphoproliferation and lymphomagenesis. The lymphoma cells expressed ligands for a natural killer (NK) cell receptor, NKG2D, and could be targeted by an NKG2D-Fc fusion protein. These experiments indicate a central role for LMP1 in the surveillance and transformation of EBV-infected B cells in vivo, establish a preclinical model for B cell lymphomagenesis in immunosuppressed patients, and validate a new therapeutic approach.

Overcoming resistance to checkpoint blockade therapy by targeting PI3Kγ in myeloid cells.

Recent clinical trials using immunotherapy have demonstrated its potential to control cancer by disinhibiting the immune system. Immune checkpoint blocking (ICB) antibodies against cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 or programmed cell death protein 1/programmed death-ligand 1 have displayed durable clinical responses in various cancers. Although these new immunotherapies have had a notable effect on cancer treatment, multiple mechanisms of immune resistance exist in tumours. Among the key mechanisms, myeloid cells have a major role in limiting effective tumour immunity. Growing evidence suggests that high infiltration of immune-suppressive myeloid cells correlates with poor prognosis and ICB resistance. These observations suggest a need for a precision medicine approach in which the design of the immunotherapeutic combination is modified on the basis of the tumour immune landscape to overcome such resistance mechanisms. Here we employ a pre-clinical mouse model system and show that resistance to ICB is directly mediated by the suppressive activity of infiltrating myeloid cells in various tumours. Furthermore, selective pharmacologic targeting of the gamma isoform of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3Kγ), highly expressed in myeloid cells, restores sensitivity to ICB. We demonstrate that targeting PI3Kγ with a selective inhibitor, currently being evaluated in a phase 1 clinical trial (NCT02637531), can reshape the tumour immune microenvironment and promote cytotoxic-T-cell-mediated tumour regression without targeting cancer cells directly. Our results introduce opportunities for new combination strategies using a selective small molecule PI3Kγ inhibitor, such as IPI-549, to overcome resistance to ICB in patients with high levels of suppressive myeloid cell infiltration in tumours.

Inhibition of de novo lipogenesis targets androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer.

A hallmark of prostate cancer progression is dysregulation of lipid metabolism via overexpression of fatty acid synthase (FASN), a key enzyme in de novo fatty acid synthesis. Metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) develops resistance to inhibitors of androgen receptor (AR) signaling through a variety of mechanisms, including the emergence of the constitutively active AR variant V7 (AR-V7). Here, we developed an FASN inhibitor (IPI-9119) and demonstrated that selective FASN inhibition antagonizes CRPC growth through metabolic reprogramming and results in reduced protein expression and transcriptional activity of both full-length AR (AR-FL) and AR-V7. Activation of the reticulum endoplasmic stress response resulting in reduced protein synthesis was involved in IPI-9119-mediated inhibition of the AR pathway. In vivo, IPI-9119 reduced growth of AR-V7-driven CRPC xenografts and human mCRPC-derived organoids and enhanced the efficacy of enzalutamide in CRPC cells. In human mCRPC, both FASN and AR-FL were detected in 87% of metastases. AR-V7 was found in 39% of bone metastases and consistently coexpressed with FASN. In patients treated with enzalutamide and/or abiraterone FASN/AR-V7 double-positive metastases were found in 77% of cases. These findings provide a compelling rationale for the use of FASN inhibitors in mCRPCs, including those overexpressing AR-V7.

Influence of BCL2L11 polymorphism on osteonecrosis during treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Osteonecrosis (ON) is corticosteroid-related complication, reported in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). We have previously found that polymorphisms in BCL2L11 gene coding for pro-apoptotic Bim protein influence reduction of overall survival (OS) in a corticosteroid (CS) dose-dependent manner in childhood ALL patients. The same set of SNPs was here investigated for an association with CS-related ON assessed retrospectively in 304 children with ALL from Quebec (QcALL cohort) who received Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (DFCI) ALL treatment protocols. Two-year cumulative incidence of symptomatic ON was 10.6%. Two BCL2L11 polymorphisms, the 891T>G (rs2241843) in all QcALL patients and 29201C>T (rs724710) in high-risk group were significantly associated with ON, P = 0.009 and P = 0.003, respectively. The association remained significant in multivariate model (HR891TT = 2.4, 95% CI 1.2-4.8, P = 0.01 and HR29201CC = 5.7, 95% CI 1.6-20.9, P = 0.008). Both polymorphisms influenced viability of dexamethasone treated lymphoblastoid cell lines (P ≤ 0.03). The 891T>G influenced Bim gamma isoform levels (0.03) and its association with ON was also confirmed in replication DFCI cohort (N = 168, P = 0.03). QcALL children had a high incidence of ON during therapy, which was highly associated with BCL2L11 polymorphisms.

Conditional inactivation of p53 in mature B cells promotes generation of nongerminal center-derived B-cell lymphomas.

The p53 tumor suppressor exerts a central role in protecting cells from oncogenic transformation. Accordingly, the p53 gene is mutated in a large number of human cancers. In mice, germ-line inactivation of p53 confers strong predisposition to development of different types of malignancies, but the early onset of thymic lymphomas in the majority of the animals prevents detailed studies of tumorigenesis in other tissues. Here, we use the Cre/Lox approach to inactivate p53 in mature B cells in mice (referred to as "CP" B cells) and find that such p53 inactivation results in the routine development of IgM-positive CP peripheral B-cell lymphomas. The CP lymphomas generally appear to arise, even in mice subjected to immunization protocols to activate germinal center reaction, from naive B cells that had not undergone immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain gene class switching or somatic hypermutation. In contrast to thymic lymphomas that arise in p53-deficient mice, which generally lack clonal translocations, nearly all analyzed CP B-cell tumors carried clonal translocations. However, in contrast to spontaneous translocations in other mouse B-cell tumor models, CP B-cell tumor translocations were not recurrent and did not involve Ig loci. Therefore, CP tumors might provide models for human lymphomas lacking Ig translocations, such as splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma or Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia. Our studies indicate that deletion of p53 is sufficient to trigger transformation of mature B cells and support the notion that p53 deficiency may allow accumulation of oncogenic translocations in B cells.

Intravenous pegylated asparaginase versus intramuscular native Escherichia coli L-asparaginase in newly diagnosed childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (DFCI 05-001): a randomised, open-label phase 3 trial.

BACKGROUND: l-asparaginase is a universal component of treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, and is usually administered intramuscularly. Pegylated Escherichia coli asparaginase (PEG-asparaginase) has a longer half-life and is potentially less immunogenic than the native Escherichia coli (E coli) preparation, and can be more feasibly administered intravenously. The aim of the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia Consortium Protocol 05-001 (DFCI 05-001) was to compare the relative toxicity and efficacy of intravenous PEG-asparaginase and intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase in children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. METHODS: DFCI 05-001 enrolled patients aged 1-18 years with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia from 11 consortium sites in the USA and Canada. Patients were assigned to an initial risk group on the basis of their baseline characteristics and then underwent 32 days of induction therapy. Those who achieved complete remission after induction therapy were assigned to a final risk group and were eligible to participate in a randomised comparison of intravenous PEG-asparaginase (15 doses of 2500 IU/m(2) every 2 weeks) or intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase (30 doses of 25 000 IU/m(2) weekly), beginning at week 7 after study entry. Randomisation (1:1) was unmasked, and was done by a statistician-generated allocation sequence using a permuted blocks algorithm (block size of 4), stratified by final risk group. The primary endpoint of the randomised comparison was the overall frequency of asparaginase-related toxicities (defined as allergy, pancreatitis, and thrombotic or bleeding complications). Predefined secondary endpoints were disease-free survival, serum asparaginase activity, and quality of life during therapy as assessed by PedsQL surveys. All analyses were done by intention to treat. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00400946. FINDINGS: Between April 22, 2005, and Feb 12, 2010, 551 eligible patients were enrolled. 526 patients achieved complete remission after induction, of whom 463 were randomly assigned to receive intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase (n=231) or intravenous PEG-asparaginase (n=232). The two treatment groups did not differ significantly in the overall frequency of asparaginase-related toxicities (65 [28%] of 232 patients in the intravenous PEG-asparaginase group vs 59 [26%] of 231 patients in the intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase group, p=0·60), or in the individual frequency of allergy (p=0·36), pancreatitis (p=0·55), or thrombotic or bleeding complications (p=0·26). Median follow-up was 6·0 years (IQR 5·0-7·1). 5-year disease-free survival was 90% (95% CI 86-94) for patients assigned to intravenous PEG-asparaginase and 89% (85-93) for those assigned to intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase (p=0·58). The median nadir serum asparaginase activity was significantly higher in patients who received intravenous PEG-asparaginase than in those who received intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase. Significantly more anxiety was reported by both patients and parent-proxy in the intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase group than in the intravenous PEG-asparaginase group. Scores for other domains were similar between the groups. The most common grade 3 or worse adverse events were bacterial or fungal infections (47 [20%] of 232 in the intravenous PEG-asparaginase group vs 51 [22%] of 231 patients in the intramuscular E colil-asparaginase group) and asparaginase-related allergic reactions (14 [6%] vs 6 [3%]). INTERPRETATION: Intravenous PEG-asparaginase was not more toxic than, was similarly efficacious to, and was associated with decreased anxiety compared with intramuscular native E colil-asparaginase, supporting its use as the front-line asparaginase preparation in children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. FUNDING: National Cancer Institute and Enzon Pharmaceuticals.

Lymphoid cell growth and transformation are suppressed by a key regulatory element of the gene encoding PU.1.

Tight regulation of transcription factors, such as PU.1, is crucial for generation of all hematopoietic lineages. We previously reported that mice with a deletion of an upstream regulatory element (URE) of the gene encoding PU.1 (Sfpi1) developed acute myeloid leukemia. Here we show that the URE has an essential role in orchestrating the dynamic PU.1 expression pattern required for lymphoid development and tumor suppression. URE deletion ablated B2 cells but stimulated growth of B1 cells in mice. The URE was a PU.1 enhancer in B cells but a repressor in T cell precursors. TCF transcription factors coordinated this repressor function and linked PU.1 to Wnt signaling. Failure of appropriate PU.1 repression in T cell progenitors with URE deletion disrupted differentiation and induced thymic transformation. Genome-wide DNA methylation assessment showed that epigenetic silencing of selective tumor suppressor genes completed PU.1-initiated transformation of lymphoid progenitors with URE deletion. These results elucidate how a single transcription factor, PU.1, through the cell context-specific activity of a key cis-regulatory element, affects the development of multiple cell lineages and can induce cancer.

Impact of promoter polymorphisms in key regulators of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway on the outcome of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

The introduction of multiagent treatment protocols has led to a remarkable increase in survival rates for children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, yet for a subpopulation of patients, resistance to chemotherapeutics remains an obstacle to successful treatment. Here we investigate the role of the mitochondrial (or intrinsic) apoptosis pathway in modulating the onset and outcomes of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cell death is a highly regulated process that plays an essential role in regulating cell homeostasis, particularly in tissues with high intrinsic proliferating capacity such as the hematopoietic system. Following the underlying paradigm that cis-acting genetic variation can influence disease risk and outcomes by modulating gene expression, we performed a systematic analysis of the proximal promoter regions of 21 genes involved in apoptosis. Using gene reporter assays, we show that promoter variations in 11 intrinsic apoptosis genes, including ADPRT, APAF1, BCL2, BAD, BID, MCL1, BIRC4, BCL2L1, ENDOG, YWHAB, and YWHAQ, influence promoter activity in an allele-specific manner. We also show that correlated promoter variation and increased expression of MCL1 is associated with reduced overall survival among high-risk patients receiving higher doses of corticosteroid, suggesting that increased expression of this anti-apoptosis gene could lead to reduced cell death and influence treatment response in a disease- and dose-responsive manner.

SIRPα/CD172a and FHOD1 are unique markers of littoral cells, a recently evolved major cell population of red pulp of human spleen.

Asplenic individuals are compromised not only in their ability to destroy infectious agents, but are at increased risk for death from autoimmune disease, certain tumors, and ischemic heart disease. Enhanced mortality is attributed to lack of phagocytes sequestered in spleen that efficiently engulf and destroy appropriate targets, although related cells are found elsewhere. To determine whether a unique population regulates RBC-pathogen clearance and filtration of altered self, we reviewed the anatomic literature and analyzed in situ by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence the expression patterns of a little-characterized cell that dominates the splenic red pulp of humans and closely related primates: the venous sinus-lining or littoral cell (LC). High expression of the formin homology domain protein 1 outlines the LC population. Although LCs are endothelial-like in distribution, they express several macrophage-directed proteins, the RBC Duffy Ag receptor for chemokines and T cell coreceptor CD8α/α, yet they lack lineage-associated markers CD34 and CD45. Strikingly, SIRPα (CD172a) expression in human spleen concentrates on LCs, consistent with recent demonstration of a key role in RBC turnover and elimination versus release of infected or altered self. Our results indicate human LCs (SIRPα(+), formin homology domain protein 1(+), CD8α/α(+), CD34(-), CD45(-)) comprise a highly plastic barrier cell population that emerged late in primate evolution coordinate with CD8 expression. Unique to Hominidae, LCs may be the ultimate determinant of which cells recirculate after passage through human spleen.

Signatures of murine B-cell development implicate Yy1 as a regulator of the germinal center-specific program.

We utilized gene expression profiling of a comprehensive panel of purified developmentally defined normal murine B cells to identify unique transcriptional signatures for each subset. To elucidate transcription factor activities that function in a stage-specific fashion, we used gene sets that share transcription factor targets and found that germinal center B cells had a robust enrichment of up-regulated and down-regulated signatures compared with the other B-cell subsets. Notably, we found Yy1 and its targets to be central regulators of the germinal center B (GCB)-specific transcriptional program with binding of Yy1 to select signature genes in GCB cells, and translation of the Yy1 signatures to human GCB cells. We then tested whether our newly generated, stage-specific transcriptional signatures could be used to link murine lymphoma models to stages of normal B-cell development. Although each of the molecularly defined murine lymphoma models conserved certain stage-specific features of normal B-cell development, there was a significant alteration of the normal differentiation signature following malignant transformation. These findings offer important tools and insights for elucidating differences between normal and malignant B cells.

Lymphomas can develop from B cells chronically helped by idiotype-specific T cells.

B cell lymphomas have been associated with chronic infections and autoimmunity. However, most lymphomas develop in the absence of any known chronic antigenic stimulation. B cells process their highly diversified endogenous immunoglobulin and present clonally unique variable-region idiotypic (Id) peptides on their major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules to Id-specific T cells. We show that B cells chronically helped by Id-specific Th2 cells developed into large B cell lymphomas with cytogenetic DNA aberrations. The lymphomas expressed high amounts of Id, MHC class II, CD80/86, and CD40 and bidirectionally collaborated with Th2 cells. Thus, MHC class II-presented Id peptides may represent a chronic self-antigenic stimulus for T cell-dependent lymphomagenesis. Eventually, B lymphomas grew independent of T cells. Thus, T cells do not only eliminate cancers as currently believed. In fact, Id-specific Th2 cells can induce B lymphomas.

Impact of hemochromatosis gene mutations on cardiac status in doxorubicin-treated survivors of childhood high-risk leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Doxorubicin is associated with progressive cardiac dysfunction, possibly through the formation of doxorubicin-iron complexes leading to free-radical injury. The authors determined the frequency of hemochromatosis (HFE) gene mutations associated with hereditary hemochromatosis and their relationship with doxorubicin-associated cardiotoxicity in survivors of childhood high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia. METHODS: Peripheral blood was tested for 2 common HFE allelic variants: C282Y and H63D. Serum cardiac troponin-T (cTnT) and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), which are biomarkers of cardiac injury and cardiomyopathy, respectively, were assayed during therapy. Left ventricular (LV) structure and function were assessed with echocardiography. RESULTS: A total of 184 patients had DNA results for at least 1 variant, and 167 had DNA results for both: 24% carried H63D and 10% carried C282Y. Heterozygous C282Y genotype was associated with multiple elevations in cTnT concentrations (P = .039), but not NT-proBNP. At a median of 2.2 years (range, 1.0 years-3.6 years) after diagnosis, the mean Z-scores for LV fractional shortening (-0.71 [standard error (SE), 0.25]; P = .008), mass (-0.84 [SE, 0.17]; P < .001), and end-systolic (-4.36 [SE, 0.26], P < .001) and end-diastolic (-0.68 [SE, 0.25]; P = .01) posterior wall thickness were found to be abnormal in children with either allele (n = 32). Noncarriers (n = 63) also were found to have below-normal LV mass (-0.45 [SE, 0.15]; P = .006) and end-systolic posterior wall thickness (-4.06 [SE, 0.17]; P < .001). Later follow-up demonstrated similar results. CONCLUSIONS: Doxorubicin-associated myocardial injury was associated with C282Y HFE carriers. Although LV mass and wall thickness were found to be abnormally low overall, they were even lower in HFE carriers, who also had reduced LV function. Screening newly diagnosed cancer patients for HFE mutations may identify those at risk for doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity.

MSI2 protein expression predicts unfavorable outcome in acute myeloid leukemia.

MSI2 is highly expressed in human myeloid leukemia (AML) cell lines, and high expression of MSI2 mRNA is associated with decreased survival in AML, suggesting its use as a new prognostic marker. To test this, we measured MSI2 protein level by immunohistochemistry in 120 AML patients. Most cases (70%) showed some nuclear or cytoplasmic positivity, but the percentage of positive cells was low in most cases. Despite this, MSI2 protein expression was negatively associated with outcome, particularly for patients with good cytogenetic subgroup. For practical diagnostic purposes, the strongest significance of association was seen in cases with > 1% of cells showing strong MSI2 staining, these having a very poor outcome (P < .0001). Multivariate analysis with cytogenetic category, age, white cell count, and French-American-British subtype demonstrated that nuclear MSI2 levels were independently predictive of outcome (P = .0497). These results confirm the association of MSI2 expression with outcome in AML at the protein level and demonstrate the utility of MSI2 protein as a clinical prognostic biomarker. In addition, although positive at some level in most cases, its prognostic power derived from few positive cells, supporting its role in control of normal hematopoietic stem cell function and highlighting its role in disease progression.

Haploinsufficiency for ribosomal protein genes causes selective activation of p53 in human erythroid progenitor cells.

Haploinsufficiency for ribosomal protein genes has been implicated in the pathophysiology of Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) and the 5q-syndrome, a subtype of myelodysplastic syndrome. The p53 pathway is activated by ribosome dysfunction, but the molecular basis for selective impairment of the erythroid lineage in disorders of ribosome function has not been determined. We found that p53 accumulates selectively in the erythroid lineage in primary human hematopoietic progenitor cells after expression of shRNAs targeting RPS14, the ribosomal protein gene deleted in the 5q-syndrome, or RPS19, the most commonly mutated gene in DBA. Induction of p53 led to lineage-specific accumulation of p21 and consequent cell cycle arrest in erythroid progenitor cells. Pharmacologic inhibition of p53 rescued the erythroid defect, whereas nutlin-3, a compound that activates p53 through inhibition of HDM2, selectively impaired erythropoiesis. In bone marrow biopsies from patients with DBA or del(5q) myelodysplastic syndrome, we found an accumulation of nuclear p53 staining in erythroid progenitor cells that was not present in control samples. Our findings indicate that the erythroid lineage has a low threshold for the induction of p53, providing a basis for the failure of erythropoiesis in the 5q-syndrome, DBA, and perhaps other bone marrow failure syndromes.

ATF5 polymorphisms influence ATF function and response to treatment in children with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Asparaginase is a standard and critical component in the therapy of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) and the basic region leucine zipper activating transcription factor 5 (ATF5) and arginosuccinate synthase 1 (ASS1) have been shown to mediate the antileukemic effect of asparaginase and to display variable expression between leukemia cells that are resistant and sensitive to treatment. Fourteen polymorphisms in the regulatory and coding regions of these genes were investigated for an association with acute lymphoblastic leukemia outcome. Lower event-free survival (EFS) was associated with ATF5 T1562C, tandem-repeat ASNS polymorphism, derived haplotype, and ASS1 G1343T and G34T substitutions (P ≤ .03). Associations were limited to patients who received Escherichia coli asparaginase. Variations that sustained correction for multiple testing (ATF5 T1562C, P = .005; ASNS tandem-repeat and related haplotype, P ≤ .01) were subsequently analyzed in the replication cohort. The E coli-dependent association of the ATF5 T1562 allele with reduced EFS was confirmed (P = .01). A gene-reporter assay showed that the haplotype tagged by T1562 had higher promoter activity (P ≤ .01). The remaining regulatory polymorphisms also appeared to affect ATF5 function; 2 additional high-activity haplotypes were identified (P ≤ .02) and were further corroborated by quantitative mRNA analysis in lymphoblastoid cell lines. The ATF5-regulated increase in ASNS expression in response to more efficacious E coli-induced asparagine depletion may explain our observed results.

Viral induction and targeted inhibition of galectin-1 in EBV+ posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders.

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs) are potentially fatal, EBV-driven B-cell malignancies that develop in immunocompromised solid organ or hematopoietic stem cell recipients. In PTLD, the expression of EBV proteins, including latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) and LMP2A, viral immune evasion strategies, and impaired host immune surveillance foster the proliferation of EBV-transformed B cells. Current PTLD treatment strategies include reduction of immunosuppression, which increases the risk of graft rejection, anti-CD20 treatment, combination chemotherapy, and administration of EBV-specific cytotoxic T cells. In the present study, we report that EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid B-cell lines (LCLs) and primary PTLDs overexpress galectin-1 (Gal1), a carbohydrate-binding lectin that induces tolerogenic dendritic cells and triggers the selective apoptosis of CD4(+) Th1 and Th17 cells and cytotoxic T cells. In transcriptional reporter assays, LMP2A and LMP1 each increased Gal1-driven luciferase expression, and the combination of LMP2A and LMP1 was additive. In addition, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated depletion of LMP2A decreased Gal1 protein abundance in EBV-transformed LCLs. Gal1 expression in LCLs was dependent on both activating protein 1 (AP-1) and PI3K. A newly developed neutralizing Gal1 mAb selectively inhibited Gal1-mediated apoptosis of EBV-specific CD8(+) T cells. Given the tolerogenic and immunosuppressive function of Gal1, antibody-mediated Gal1 neutralization may represent a novel immunotherapeutic strategy for PTLD and other Gal1-expressing tumors.

Essential role for Ptpn11 in survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Src homology 2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (Shp2), encoded by Ptpn11, is a member of the nonreceptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase family, and functions in cell survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation in many tissues. Here we report that loss of Ptpn11 in murine hematopoietic cells leads to bone marrow aplasia and lethality. Mutant mice show rapid loss of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and immature progenitors of all hematopoietic lineages in a gene dosage-dependent and cell-autonomous manner. Ptpn11-deficient HSCs and progenitors undergo apoptosis concomitant with increased Noxa expression. Mutant HSCs/progenitors also show defective Erk and Akt activation in response to stem cell factor and diminished thrombopoietin-evoked Erk activation. Activated Kras alleviates the Ptpn11 requirement for colony formation by progenitors and cytokine/growth factor responsiveness of HSCs, indicating that Ras is functionally downstream of Shp2 in these cells. Thus, Shp2 plays a critical role in controlling the survival and maintenance of HSCs and immature progenitors in vivo.

Prognostic, therapeutic, and mechanistic implications of a mouse model of leukemia evoked by Shp2 (PTPN11) mutations.

The SH2-containing tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 (PTPN11) is required for growth factor and cytokine signaling. Germline Shp2 mutations cause Noonan Syndrome (NS), which is associated with increased risk of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML). Somatic Shp2 mutations occur in sporadic JMML and other leukemias. We found that Shp2 mutants associated with sporadic leukemias transform murine bone marrow cells, whereas NS mutants are less potent in this assay. Transformation requires multiple domains within Shp2 and the Shp2 binding protein Gab2, and is associated with hyperactivation of the Erk, Akt, and Stat5 pathways. Mutant Shp2-transduced BM causes a fatal JMML-like disorder or, less commonly, lymphoproliferation. Shp2 mutants also cause myeloproliferation in Drosophila. Mek or Tor inhibitors potently inhibit transformation, suggesting new approaches to JMML therapy.

Acute myeloid leukemia induced by graded reduction of a lineage-specific transcription factor, PU.1.

Transcription factors are believed to have a dominant role in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This idea is supported by analysis of gene-knockout mice, which uncovered crucial roles of several transcription factors in normal hematopoiesis, and of individuals with leukemia, in whom transcription factors are frequently downregulated or mutated. However, analysis of knockout animals has not shown a direct link between abrogated transcription factors and the pathogenesis of AML. Sfpi1, encoding the lineage-specific transcription factor PU.1, is indispensable for normal myeloid and lymphoid development. We found that mice carrying hypomorphic Sfpi1 alleles that reduce PU.1 expression to 20% of normal levels, unlike mice carrying homo- or heterozygous deletions of Sfpi1, developed AML. Unlike complete or 50% loss, 80% loss of PU.1 induced a precancerous state characterized by accumulation of an abnormal precursor pool retaining responsiveness to G-CSF with disruption of M- and GM-CSF pathways. Malignant transformation was associated with a high frequency of clonal chromosomal changes. Retroviral restoration of PU.1 expression rescued myeloid differentiation of mutant progenitors and AML blasts. These results suggest that tightly graded reduction, rather than complete loss, of a lineage-indispensable transcription factor can induce AML.