The Rheb GTPase promotes pheromone blindness via a TORC1-independent pathway in the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis.

The target of the rapamycin (TOR) signaling pathway plays a negative role in controlling virulence in phytopathogenic fungi. However, the actual targets involved in virulence are currently unknown. Using the corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis, we tried to address the effects of the ectopic activation of TOR on virulence. We obtained gain-of-function mutations in the Rheb GTPase, one of the conserved TOR kinase regulators. We have found that unscheduled activation of Rheb resulted in the alteration of the proper localization of the pheromone receptor, Pra1, and thereby pheromone insensitivity. Since pheromone signaling triggers virulence in Ustilaginales, we believe that the Rheb-induced pheromone blindness was responsible for the associated lack of virulence. Strikingly, although these effects required the concourse of the Rsp5 ubiquitin ligase and the Art3 α-arrestin, the TOR kinase was not involved. Several eukaryotic organisms have shown that Rheb transmits environmental information through TOR-dependent and -independent pathways. Therefore, our results expand the range of signaling manners at which environmental conditions could impinge on the virulence of phytopathogenic fungi.

Mental fatigue changes from regular season to play-offs in semiprofessional soccer: A comparison by training days.

The main purpose was to compare by each training the mental load and fatigue reported by semiprofessional soccer players comparing between regular season phase and the play-offs. Fifty-three players (Mage  = 24.59 years) for two teams participated during the 2020/21 season. Mental load was measured with a Likert questionnaire. Mental fatigue was quantified with a Visual Analogue Scale. Four trainings were recorded each week (Monday = MD+1, Wednesday = MD-4, Thursday = MD-3 and Saturday = MD-1), with a competitive match on Sunday across 10 weeks (five dates of regular season - five dates of play-offs). A Linear Mixed Model was performed with R-studio, using the training days and the competitive phase as independent variables. The influence of time played as co-variable was also checked. Results showed MD+1 as the more mentally fatiguing day in both phases, although MD-4 were the training with higher mental load reported (p = 0.001). Comparing phases, mental fatigue was significantly higher during the play-offs (p = 0.037). With regard time played, players that did not usually play showed a decrease in mental load during the play-offs. Then, we recommend coaches to use recovery strategies for mental fatigue, avoid mentally fatiguing tasks close to competition and considerer the time played as a factor which may contribute to individual differences in player mental fatigue.

Incompatibility between proliferation and plant invasion is mediated by a regulator of appressorium formation in the corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis.

Plant pathogenic fungi often developed specialized infection structures to breach the outer surface of a host plant. These structures, called appressoria, lead the invasion of the plant by the fungal hyphae. Studies in different phytopathogenic fungi showed that appressorium formation seems to be subordinated to the cell cycle. This subordination ensures the loading in the invading hypha of the correct genetic information to proceed with plant infection. However, how the cell cycle transmits its condition to the genetic program controlling appressorium formation and promoting the plant's invasion is unknown. Our results have uncovered how this process occurs for the appressorium of Ustilago maydis, the agent responsible for corn smut disease. Here, we described that the complex Clb2-cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)1, one of the master regulators of G2/M cell cycle progression in U. maydis, interacts and controls the subcellular localization of Biz1, a transcriptional factor required for the activation of the appressorium formation. Besides, Biz1 can arrest the cell cycle by down-regulation of the gene encoding a second b-cyclin Clb1 also required for the G2/M transition. These results revealed a negative feedback loop between appressorium formation and cell cycle progression in U. maydis, which serves as a "toggle switch" to control the fungal decision between infecting the plant or proliferating out of the plant.

Thermal responses induced by nitrogen and forced convection based partial-body cryostimulation.

Partial Body Cryostimulation (PBC) involves a very cold air flow directed to the body of subjects with minimal clothing. PBC is performed in a rapid timeframe, inside an on-purposed designed cryo-cabin. Recently, cryo-cabins have been built with different energy systems, however a validation study on relative thermal responses is missing. This study was aimed at comparing thermal responses following a PBC in an electrically powered cryo-cabin based on forced convection or into a standard nitrogen-fueled cryo-cabin. In a randomized crossover fashion, thirty-six subjects (F=20; M=16) underwent both cryo-exposures lasting 150 s each. Thermal responses were assessed before and immediately after completing each PBC session. Mixed model analysis of variance revealed a significantly colder temperature after electric PBC in all the body regions (except for the thighs) with respect to a standard nitrogen based PBC (F: 16.4 ± 1.4 vs 18 ± 5.8 °C; M: 16.4 ± 1.7 vs 20.9 ± 4 °C). Moreover, a significant lower thermal discomfort was perceived at the end of electric PBC as compared to that one felt following standard PBC. For the first time, the safety and thermo-effectiveness of an electric cryo-cabin based on forced convection was ensured. This methodology can be viable for practitioners of PBC and clinicians.

Spatial distribution patterns of tick community structure in sympatric jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) from three ecoregions in Mexico.

We examined tick communities on wild felid hosts in three ecoregions of Mexico. We collected 186 ticks of 7 species from 10 pumas (Puma concolor) and 9 jaguars (Panthera onca). Tick community composition varied across the ecoregions, and across host species within each region. Overall, Ixodes affinis, Amblyomma ovale, and Amblyomma tenellum were the most abundant species; however, only the latter two ticks were distributed across all three ecoregions, while I. affinis, along with Ixodes spinipalpis, Amblyomma inornatum, and Amblyomma parvum were restricted to more limited geographical regions. Ixodes affinis occurred strictly in southern tropical rainforest ecoregions and was significantly more abundant in Selva Lacandona compared with the Yucatán Peninsula. Amblyomma ovale was significantly more common in the tropical dry forest in the Pacific coastal ecoregion. Amblyomma tenellum abundance tended to be higher on jaguars, while I. affinis abundance was higher on pumas. Regional distribution patterns of some tick species (e.g., I. affinis and I. spinipalpis) may be determined by off-host environmental conditions rather than host factors. In contrast, at the local scale, occurrence and abundance of some tick species (e.g., A. tenellum, A. ovale and Rhipicephalus microplus) might be driven by ecological-host factors, such as habitat use or predator-prey relationships.

Effectiveness and safety of a thermal insulating coverage on the top of the cryo-cabin during a partial-body cryostimulation.

Partial Body Cryostimulation (PBC) consists of exposing minimally dressed participants to very cold air, in a specially designed cabin (cryo-cabin), for a short period of time. In recent years, cryo-cabins have been launched with a coverage to limit thermo-dispersion, however a validation study is lacking. The aim of this study was to compare thermal responses after a PBC protocol in an open cryo-cabin or into a cryo-cabin closed at the top with a polyurethane-made lid. Eighteen young male adults completed the two 150 s PBC sessions in a cross-over fashion. Temperature of the inner cabin and thermal responses were measured prior and 1, 5, 10, 20 min after completing each PBC session. When covered, cryo-cabins maintained a lower temperature in the front with respect to the back. There was a significant interaction regarding coverage*time*position with a main effect of coverage. Body surfaces were significantly colder under covered condition compared to open PBC. Subjects perceived a greater thermal discomfort during a covered PBC rather than during an open condition. For the first time, the use of a coverage placed on the top of the cabin was demonstrated to maintain lower temperatures of the inner environment and the users' skin with respect to a standard PBC. This evidence indicates that practitioners and clinicians making use of PBC can successfully and safely cover cryo-cabins with an insulating lid so to improve the effectiveness of their treatments.

Pacing Profiles of Olympic and IAAF World Championship Long-Distance Runners.

ABSTRACT: Filipas, L, La Torre, A, and Hanley, B. Pacing profiles of Olympic and International Association of Athletics Federations World Championship long-distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1134-1140, 2021-The aim of this study was to analyze the pacing profiles of Olympic and International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championship long-distance finalists, including the relationship with their recent best times. The times for each 1,000-m split were obtained for 394 men and women in 5,000- and 10,000-m finals at 5 championships. Athletes' best times from the previous 32 months were also obtained. Similar pacing profiles were used by athletes grouped by finishing position in 5,000-m races. Women adopted a more even pacing behavior, highlighting a possible sex-based difference over this distance. Pacing behavior over 10,000 m was more similar between men and women compared with over 5,000 m. The main difference between men and women was that in the men's 10,000 m, as in the men's 5,000 m, more athletes were able to follow the leading group until the final stages. There were large or very large correlations between athletes' best times from the previous 32 months and their result; the fastest finishers also ran closer to their previous 32 months' best times. Despite differences in pacing behavior between events, long-distance runners should nonetheless stay close to the front from the beginning to win a medal.

Are elite track and field athletes on track? The impact of COVID-19 outbreak on sleep behavior and training characteristics.

The Covid-19 outbreak forced many governments to enter a nationwide lockdown. The aim of this study was to evaluate, by means of a survey, changes in sleep parameters and physical activity characteristics of elite track and field athletes in three periods: before the lockdown (T0), during the lockdown (09th March - 03rd May 2020, T1) and the first month after the lockdown (T2). This study was conducted from May 2020 to June 2020 and data were collected using an offline survey with 89 elite track and field athletes (mean age: 24.7 ± 5.4; n = 43 males; n = 46 females). The survey consisted of demographic data and questions on physical activity and sleep behavior at T0, T1 and T2. Athletes reported lower sleep quality scores at T1 compared to T0 and T2 (p < 0.0001) and registered delayed bedtime, wake-up time and longer sleep latency during the lockdown compared to pre-lockdown and post-lockdown whereas no changes in total sleep time were reported. No inter-group differences were detected in sleep characteristics between short- and long-term disciplines and between genders. The weekly training volume decreased from 16.1 ± 5.7 hours at T0 to 10.7 ± 5.7 hours at T1 (p < 0.0001) whereas no significant differences were detected in training volume during the lockdown in relation to the square footage of the house (p = 0.309). Alcohol (p = 0.136) and caffeine intake (p = 0.990) and use of electronic devices (p = 0.317) were similar pre-, during, and post-lockdown. The unprecedented circumstances of the Covid-19 pandemic had negative impacts on the Italian track and field athletes' sleep and training volumes.

Determining the relationship between load markers and non-contact injuries during the competitive season among professional and semi-professional basketball players.

This study examined the association and predictive ability of internal load markers (based on rating of perceived exertion, RPE) with non-contact injuries in basketball. 35 basketball players (age: 24 ± 6 years, stature: 196 ± 9 cm, body mass: 91 ± 12 kg) were prospectively followed during 1 or 2 seasons, during which non-contact injuries were recorded. Markers examined were: mean weekly RPE, weekly load, exposure, week-to-week load change, acute:chronic 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 load ratio. A generalized estimating equations analysis was used to determine association with non-contact injury in the subsequent week. Prediction was examined with receiver operating characteristic curve, area under the curve (AUC) and Youden index. No associations were found between load markers and non-contact injuries (all p > 0.05); load markers showed no injury predictive ability (AUC range: 0.468-537; Youden index range: 0.019-132). In conclusion, the load markers selected are not associated with non-contact injuries and they cannot be used to predict injuries in basketball.

Differences in GPS variables according to playing formations and playing positions in U19 male soccer players.

The aims of this study were 1) to investigate Global Positioning System (GPS)-based match physical performance according to players' playing position in three different playing formations (4-4-2, 3-5-2, 4-3-3) and 2) to analyse the differences in match performance between 1st and 2nd half. Twenty-three U19 elite male soccer players (age: 18 ± 1 year, height: 1.80 ± 0.04 m, body mass: 70.65 ± 6.02 kg), categorized as Central Back (CB, n = 5), Full Back (FB, n = 4), Central Midfielders (CM, n = 4), Wingers (W, n = 3), Strikers (S, n = 7), were monitored using 10 Hz GPS during 31 competitive matches. The results showed that FB and W always had the highest very high-speed running distance and number of sprints in all playing formations. Significant decrease in all GPS variables was observed in the 2nd half of the match for all playing positions. Strength coaches should adopt specific training regimes in accordance with players' playing position.

High-impact Routines to Ameliorate Trunk and Lower Limbs Flexibility in Women.

Several types of routines and methods have been experimented to gain neuro/muscular advantages, in terms of overall range of motion, in athletes and fitness enthusiasts. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact of different routines on trunk- and lower limbs flexibility in a sample of young women. In a randomized-crossover fashion, eleven subjects underwent to: hamstrings stretching [S]; hamstrings stretching plus whole-body vibration [S+WBV]; partial-body cryotherapy [Cryo]; rest [Control]. Standing hamstrings stretch performance and sit-and-reach amplitude resulted to be improved with [S+WBV] compared to all other protocols (p<0.05). [Cryo] ameliorated the active knee extension performance with respect to all other interventions (p<0.05). These flexibility improvements were obtained without a loss in the trunk position sense proprioception. These results represent the first evidence that a single session of either vibration or cryotherapy can ameliorate flexibility without losing the trunk position sense proprioception in young women.

Match Activities in Basketball Games: Comparison Between Different Competitive Levels.

Ferioli, D, Schelling, X, Bosio, A, La Torre, A, Rucco, D, and Rampinini, E. Match activities in basketball games: comparison between different competitive levels. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 172-182, 2020-This study examined the (a) differences in the activity demands of official basketball games between different competitive levels (from elite to amateur levels) among a large cohort of adult male players and (b) match-to-match variations of basketball physical demands. Video-based time-motion analysis (TMA) was performed to assess the players' physical activity among 136 players. Match-to-match variations were determined analyzing 2 consecutive matches of the same level on 35 players. The frequency of occurrence (n per minutes) and the duration in percentage of playing time were calculated for high-intensity activity (HIA), moderate-intensity activity (MIA), low-intensity activity (LIA), and recovery (REC). Division I performed an almost certain greater number of HIA, MIA, and total actions per minutes of playing time compared with Division II that performed similarly to Division III. Division VI performed a likely-to-very likely lower number of LIA, MIA, and total actions per minute compared with Division III. Division I spent almost certain greater playing time competing in HIA and MIA compared with lower divisions. Time spent at REC was very likely greater in Division VI compared with all other Divisions. The frequency of occurrence was less reliable than percentage duration of game activities. Matches of different competitive levels are characterized by different physical activities. The ability to sustain greater intermittent workloads and HIA, and the ability to quickly recover from high-intensity phases during competitions should be considered as key components of basketball. The match-to-match variations values observed in this study might be useful to correctly interpret individual TMA data.

Are two different speed endurance training protocols able to affect the concentration of serum cortisol in response to a shuttle run test in soccer players?

Soccer involves multiple high-intensity physical, technical and tactical actions; as result of this, soccer training must include high-intensity exercises, which can act as a stimulus to the hypothalamus pituitary-adrenal axis, resulting in a significant increase in circulating cortisol levels. This study examined the effect of 4 weeks of Speed Endurance Maintenance (SEM) and Speed Endurance Production (SEP) on the serum cortisol concentration in response to a 5-meter multiple shuttle run test (5-m MST) in young elite soccer players. Fifteen soccer players were divided to SEM (n = 7) or SEP (n = 8) training group. Blood drawings were performed four times: before and after the 5-m MST at baseline (T1a, T1b) and at follow-up (T2a, T2b). Both training regimes determined a cortisol secretion following the 5-m MST at both baseline and follow-up. Data on delta values highlighted that SEP had greater values than SEM at baseline and registered a significant decrease at the follow-up. This difference is probably due to the lack of specific speed endurance training for players of SEP group prior to the beginning of the protocol. The physiological mechanisms behind the observed biological differences should be deeply investigated.

Association study of dietary non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity (NEAC) and colorectal cancer risk in the Spanish Multicase-Control Cancer (MCC-Spain) study.

PURPOSE: Studies attempting to link dietary non-enzymatic antioxidant activity (NEAC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) risk have reported mixed results. We examined this association in the Spanish Multicase-Control Study considering the likely influence of coffee and other dietary factors. METHODS: 1718 CRC cases and 3312 matched-controls provided information about diet through a validated 140-item food frequency questionnaire. Dietary NEAC was estimated for three methods [total radical-trapping antioxidant parameters (TRAP), ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) and TEAC-ABTS] using published values of NEAC content in food, with and without coffee's NEAC. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated through unconditional logistic regression models adjusted for lifestyle and dietary factors. RESULTS: Overall dietary intake of NEAC was significantly lower in cases compared to controls and associated with a significantly reduced CRC risk, in both men (ORQ5vsQ1 = 0.67, 95% CI 0.47-0.96 for FRAP) and women (ORQ5vsQ1 = 0.53, 95% CI 0.32-085 for FRAP), in multivariate models with and without the antioxidant contribution from coffee. The effect was similar for all the NEAC methods evaluated and for both colon and rectum. The association between dietary NEAC and CRC risk became non-significant when adjusting for fiber intake. However, intakes of NEAC and fiber were correlated. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that intake of an antioxidant-rich plant-based diet, both with and without NEAC from coffee, is associated with decreased CRC risk.

Local cryostimulation acutely preserves maximum isometric handgrip strength following fatigue in young women.

Several types of cryostimulation have been recently proposed to rapidly lower skin temperature therefore gaining a possible neuro/muscular recovery after strenuous exercise or, more generally, in sports. Local cryostimulation may be a viable and relatively portable tool to obtain physiological benefits in previously-efforted muscular districts. However, cohesive and standardized cryo-exposure protocols are lacking as well as the righteous procedure to efficaciously combine duration, treatments and temperature in relation to desirable effects on muscular strength. In this randomized-controlled study, fifty young women were tested for maximum isometric handgrip strength, before and after exhausting contractions. Following the fatiguing protocol, the intervention group (cryo, n = 25, 24.7 ±â€¯2.5 years, BMI 21.7 ±â€¯1.8 kg/m2) underwent a 6-min local cryostimulation (-160 °C) on the extensor-flexor muscles of the dominant arm, while control-matched peers sat rested in a thermo-neutral room (22 ±â€¯0.5 °C). Handgrip tests were repeated at baseline (T0), after cryostimulation (T1), and 15 min after T1 (T2). Throughout the protocol, the AUC of the strength performance was significantly higher in the cryo- compared to control group (P = 0.006). In particular, following fatigue and cryostimulation, the cryo group preserved higher strength at T1 with respect to controls (26.8 ±â€¯2.8 vs 23.9 ±â€¯2.8 kg, Bonferroni's post-hoc, P < 0.01). Likewise, ventral and dorsal temperature, recorded with a thermal camera, were lower in cryo- than control group (P < 0.0001). In conclusion, a brief session of local cryostimulation may acutely preserve maximal isometric force in young women following a fatiguing protocol. These findings may have implications in orchestrating strategies of district muscular recovery.

Acute sleep hygiene strategy improves objective sleep latency following a late-evening soccer-specific training session: A randomized controlled trial.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of sleep hygiene (SH) education on sleep quality in soccer players after a late-evening small-sided-game (SSG) training session. Twenty-nine non-professional players were recruited and allocated to either an experimental group (EG, n = 17) that received SH education, or a control group (CG, n = 12). SSG consisted of 3 × 4 min in a 4vs4, with 3 min of recovery and was performed at 8.00 p.m. Sleep quality was monitored via actigraphy and sleep diary entries before (PRE) and two nights after (POST1, POST2) the SSG. Sleep latency (SL) differed between the two groups at POST1 (4.9 ± 5.4 vs. 15.5 ± 16.1 for EG and CG, respectively; p = 0.017, effect size [ES] = 2.0); SL values were lower at POST1 compared to PRE for the EG (-47%; p = 0.021, ES = 0.6). Subjective sleep quality was better in the EG than the CG at POST1 (8.6 ± 1.0 vs. 7.1 ± 2.0 for EG and CG, respectively; p = 0.016, ES = 0.9) with a significant improvement over PRE-values (+11.0%, p = 0.004, ES = 0.8). Although SL and subjective sleep quality did not decrease significantly from POST1 to POST2 values at POST2 no longer differed significantly form baseline and, hence, indicate that observed effects may be short-lasting. No other objective sleep indices were influenced by late-evening training or SH practices implemented by the EG. Soccer players may benefit from acute SH strategies to reduce the time to sleep onset after late-evening training sessions.

Protein Phosphatase Ppz1 Is Not Regulated by a Hal3-Like Protein in Plant Pathogen Ustilago maydis.

Ppz enzymes are type-1 related Ser/Thr protein phosphatases that are restricted to fungi. In S. cerevisiae and other fungi, Ppz1 is involved in cation homeostasis and is regulated by two structurally-related inhibitory subunits, Hal3 and Vhs3, with Hal3 being the most physiologically relevant. Remarkably, Hal3 and Vhs3 have moonlighting properties, as they participate in an atypical heterotrimeric phosphopantothenoyl cysteine decarboxylase (PPCDC), a key enzyme for Coenzyme A biosynthesis. Here we identify and functionally characterize Ppz1 phosphatase (UmPpz1) and its presumed regulatory subunit (UmHal3) in the plant pathogen fungus Ustilago maydis. UmPpz1 is not an essential protein in U. maydis and, although possibly related to the cell wall integrity pathway, is not involved in monovalent cation homeostasis. The expression of UmPpz1 in S. cerevisiae Ppz1-deficient cells partially mimics the functions of the endogenous enzyme. In contrast to what was found in C. albicans and A. fumigatus, UmPpz1 is not a virulence determinant. UmHal3, an unusually large protein, is the only functional PPCDC in U. maydis and, therefore, an essential protein. However, when overexpressed in U. maydis or S. cerevisiae, UmHal3 does not reproduce Ppz1-inhibitory phenotypes. Indeed, UmHal3 does not inhibit UmPpz1 in vitro (although ScHal3 does). Therefore, UmHal3 might not be a moonlighting protein.

The Role of the Molecular Clock in Promoting Skeletal Muscle Growth and Protecting against Sarcopenia.

The circadian clock has a critical role in many physiological functions of skeletal muscle and is essential to fully understand the precise underlying mechanisms involved in these complex interactions. The importance of circadian expression for structure, function and metabolism of skeletal muscle is clear when observing the muscle phenotype in models of molecular clock disruption. Presently, the maintenance of circadian rhythms is emerging as an important new factor in human health, with disruptions linked to ageing, as well as to the development of many chronic diseases, including sarcopenia. Therefore, the aim of this review is to present the latest findings demonstrating how circadian rhythms in skeletal muscle are important for maintenance of the cellular physiology, metabolism and function of skeletal muscle. Moreover, we will present the current knowledge about the tissue-specific functions of the molecular clock in skeletal muscle.

Effects of Flywheel Strength Training on the Running Economy of Recreational Endurance Runners.

Festa, L, Tarperi, C, Skroce, K, Boccia, G, Lippi, G, La Torre, A, and Schena, F. Effects of flywheel strength training on the running economy of recreational endurance runners. J Strength Cond Res 33(3): 684-690, 2019-Running economy (RE) has been defined as the most important determining factor in endurance performance in both elite and recreational runners. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of flywheel strength training (FST) and high-intensity training (HIT) protocols on RE and strength parameters in a group of recreational runners. Twenty-nine recreational runners were recruited to take part in the study and were randomly assigned to FST (n = 9; 44.5 ± 6.0 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 48.8 ± 5.2 ml·min·kg), HIT (n = 9; 42.2 ± 8.6 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 50.3 ± 3.7 ml·min·kg), or low-intensity training (LIT) (n = 11; 45.4 ± 8.0 years; V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 50.2 ± 6.8 ml min kg) groups. Before and after 8 weeks of an experimental period, maximal oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max), ventilatory thresholds (VTs), maximal dynamic force (1 repetition maximum [1RM]), and anthropometric data were evaluated. The FST group showed significant increases (p < 0.05) in 1RM and RE. No differences were found in the other groups. Significative changes are found for all groups on average speed on 2 and 10 km (p < 0.05). Anthropometric data were unchanged after the training period. The results of this study indicate that in recreational runners, FST seems able to obtain improvements in RE and neuromuscular adaptation.

Virulence-specific cell cycle and morphogenesis connections in pathogenic fungi.

To initiate pathogenic development, pathogenic fungi respond to a set of inductive cues. Some of them are of an extracellular nature (environmental signals), while others are intracellular (developmental signals). These signals must be integrated into a single response whose major outcome is changes in the morphogenesis of the fungus. The regulation of the cell cycle is pivotal during these cellular differentiation steps; therefore, cell cycle regulation would likely provide control points for infectious development by fungal pathogens. Here, we provide clues to understanding how the control of the cell cycle is integrated with the morphogenesis program in pathogenic fungi, and we review current examples that support these connections.