A guide to selecting upper thoracic versus lower thoracic uppermost instrumented vertebra in adult spinal deformity correction.

PURPOSE: Operative treatment of adult spinal deformity (ASD) has been shown to improve patient health-related quality of life (HRQOL). Selection of the uppermost instrumented vertebra (UIV) in either the upper thoracic (UT) or lower thoracic (LT) spine is a pivotal decision with effects on operative and postoperative outcomes. This review overviews the multifaceted decision-making process for UIV selection in ASD correction. METHODS: PubMed was queried for articles using the keywords "uppermost instrumented vertebra", "upper thoracic", "lower thoracic", and "adult spinal deformity". RESULTS: Optimization of UIV selection may lead to superior deformity correction, better patient-reported outcomes, and lower risk of proximal junctional kyphosis (PJK) and failure (PJF). Patient alignment characteristics, including preoperative thoracic kyphosis, coronal deformity, and the magnitude of sagittal correction influence surgical decision-making when selecting a UIV, while comorbidities such as poor body mass index, osteoporosis, and neuromuscular pathology should also be taken in to account. Additionally, surgeon experience and resources available to the hospital may also play a role in this decision. Currently, it is incompletely understood whether postoperative HRQOLs, functional and radiographic outcomes, and complications after surgery differ between selection of the UIV in either the UT or LT spine. CONCLUSION: The correct selection of the UIV in surgical planning is a challenging task, which requires attention to preoperative alignment, patient comorbidities, clinical characteristics, available resources, and surgeon-specific factors such as experience.

Evaluating the state of non-invasive imaging biomarkers for traumatic brain injury.

Non-invasive imaging biomarkers are useful for prognostication in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) at high risk for morbidity with invasive procedures. The authors present findings from a scoping review discussing the pertinent biomarkers. Embase, Ovid-MEDLINE, and Scopus were queried for original research on imaging biomarkers for prognostication of TBI in adult patients. Two reviewers independently screened articles, extracted data, and evaluated risk of bias. Data was synthesized and confidence evaluated with the linked evidence according to the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Our search yielded 3104 unique citations, 44 of which were included in this review. Study populations varied in TBI severity, as defined by Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), including: mild (n=9), mild and moderate (n=3), moderate and severe (n=7), severe (n=6), and all GCS scores (n=17). Diverse imaging modalities were used for prognostication, predominantly computed tomography (CT) only (n=11), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) only (n=9), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) (N=9). The biomarkers included diffusion coefficient mapping, metabolic characteristics, optic nerve sheath diameter, T1-weighted signal changes, cortical cerebral blood flow, axial versus extra-axial lesions, T2-weighted gradient versus spin echo, translocator protein levels, and trauma imaging of brainstem areas. The majority (93%) of studies identified that the imaging biomarker of interest had a statistically significant prognostic value; however, these are based on a very low to low level of quality of evidence. No study directly compared the effects on specific TBI treatments on the temporal course of imaging biomarkers. The current literature is insufficient to make a strong recommendation about a preferred imaging biomarker for TBI, especially considering GRADE criteria revealing low quality of evidence. Rigorous prospective research of imaging biomarkers of TBI is warranted to improve the understanding of TBI severity.

Art and Neurosurgery: The Importance of Medical Illustration.

Art in neurosurgery has been a critical part of the discipline for centuries. Numerous cultures, such as ancient India, China, and Egypt, and more contemporary scientists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Max Brödel, and Norman Dott, have significantly contributed to medical illustration. Today, advancements in three-dimensional technology have allowed for the creation of detailed neuroanatomy models for surgical planning and education. Medical illustrations are also used for research and outcome documentation as they help visualize anatomy and surgical procedures. Its use in education, surgical planning, and navigation remains integral to the advancement of neurosurgery. This review demonstrates the invaluable contribution of art in neurosurgery and how it has enabled continuous progress in the field.

Surgical Management of Hip-Spine Syndrome: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Hip-spine syndrome (HSS) was first described in 1983 to describe the symptomatology resulting from concomitant lumbar degenerative stenosis and hip osteoarthritis. Numerous studies have sought to understand the underlying pathology and appropriate management of this syndrome. The purpose of this article is to review the literature for the specific imaging characteristics and the optimal surgical treatment of HSS. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted via an electronic database search through PubMed to identify all publications related to HSS. All publications that contained data on patients who underwent surgical treatment for HSS and reported patient-reported outcome measures or radiographic data were included. Exclusion criteria consisted of publications in a language other than English, review articles, and technique articles. RESULTS: Fifteen articles that focused on the surgical management of HSS were identified. Of these 15 articles, 8 reported radiographic outcomes, with most reporting no significant change in spinopelvic parameters before and after surgery. Thirteen articles reported clinical outcomes, with 8 of those 13 articles identifying patient-reported outcome measures to be significantly improved following surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The data on the surgical management of HSS remains sparse. While there is some evidence that total hip arthroplasty in patients who previously underwent spinal fusion may have higher complication rates, there remains debate regarding which surgical problem to address first, the hip or the spine.

Machine Learning in Spine Surgery: A Narrative Review.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning (ML) can offer revolutionary advances in their application to the field of spine surgery. Within the past 5 years, novel applications of ML have assisted in surgical decision-making, intraoperative imaging and navigation, and optimization of clinical outcomes. ML has the capacity to address many different clinical needs and improve diagnostic and surgical techniques. This review will discuss current applications of ML in the context of spine surgery by breaking down its implementation preoperatively, intraoperatively, and postoperatively. Ethical considerations to ML and challenges in ML implementation must be addressed to maximally benefit patients, spine surgeons, and the healthcare system. Areas for future research in augmented reality and mixed reality, along with limitations in generalizability and bias, will also be highlighted.

Clinical prediction for surgical versus nonsurgical interventions in patients with vertebral osteomyelitis and discitis.

Background: Vertebral osteomyelitis and discitis (VOD), an infection of intervertebral discs, often requires spine surgical intervention and timely management to prevent adverse outcomes. Our study aims to develop a machine learning (ML) model to predict the indication for surgical intervention (during the same hospital stay) versus nonsurgical management in patients with VOD. Methods: This retrospective study included adult patients (≥18 years) with VOD (ICD-10 diagnosis codes M46.2,3,4,5) treated at a single institution between 01/01/2015 and 12/31/2019. The primary outcome studied was surgery. Candidate predictors were age, sex, race, Elixhauser comorbidity index, first-recorded lab values, first-recorded vital signs, and admit diagnosis. After splitting the dataset, XGBoost, logistic regression, and K-neighbor classifier algorithms were trained and tested for model development. Results: A total of 1,111 patients were included in this study, among which 30% (n=339) of patients underwent surgical intervention. Age and sex did not significantly differ between the two groups; however, race did significantly differ (P<0.0001), with the surgical group having a higher percentage of white patients. The top ten model features for the best-performing model (XGBoost) were as follows (in descending order of importance): admit diagnosis of fever, negative culture, Staphylococcus aureus culture, partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fractional inspired oxygen ratio (PaO2:FiO2), admit diagnosis of intraspinal abscess and granuloma, admit diagnosis of sepsis, race, troponin I, acid-fast bacillus culture, and alveolar-arterial gradient (A-a gradient). XGBoost model metrics were as follows: accuracy =0.7534, sensitivity =0.7436, specificity =0.7586, and area under the curve (AUC) =0.8210. Conclusions: The XGBoost model reliably predicts the indication for surgical intervention based on several readily available patient demographic information and clinical features. The interpretability of a supervised ML model provides robust insight into patient outcomes. Furthermore, it paves the way for the development of an efficient hospital resource allocation instrument, designed to guide clinical suggestions.

Evidence Against a Traumatic Brain Injury "July Effect": An Analysis of 3 160 452 Patients From the National Inpatient Sample.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The "July Effect" hypothesizes increased morbidity and mortality after the addition of inexperienced physicians at the beginning of an academic year. However, the impact of newer members on neurosurgical teams managing patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) has yet to be examined. This study conducted a nationwide analysis to evaluate the existence of the "July Effect" in the setting of patients with TBI. METHODS: The Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Central Distributor's National Inpatient Sample data set was queried for patients with TBI using International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-9 and ICD-10 codes. Discharges were included for diagnoses of traumatic epidural, subdural, or subarachnoid hemorrhages. Only patients treated at teaching hospitals were included to ensure resident involvement in care. Patients were grouped into July admission and non-July admission cohorts. A subgroup of patients with neurotrauma undergoing any form of cranial surgery was created. Perioperative variables were recorded. Rates of different complications were assayed. Groups were compared using χ2 tests (qualitative variables) and t-tests or Mann-Whitney U-tests (quantitative variables). Logistic regression was used for binary variables. Gamma log-linked regression was used for continuous variables. RESULTS: The National Inpatient Sample database yielded a weighted average of 3 160 452 patients, of which 312 863 (9.9%) underwent surgical management. Patients admitted to the hospital in July had a 5% decreased likelihood of death (P = .027), and a 5.83% decreased likelihood of developing a complication (P < .001) compared with other months of the year. July admittance to a hospital showed no significant impact on mean length of stay (P = .392) or routine discharge (P = .147). Among patients with TBI who received surgical intervention, July admittance did not significantly affect the likelihood of death (P = .053), developing a complication (P = .477), routine discharge (P = .986), or mean length of stay (P = .385). CONCLUSION: The findings suggested that there is no "July Effect" on patients with TBI treated at teaching hospitals in the United States.

Associating T1-Weighted and T2-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging Radiomic Signatures With Preoperative Symptom Severity in Patients With Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy.

BACKGROUND: Preoperative symptom severity in cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) can be variable. Radiomic signatures could provide an imaging biomarker for symptom severity in CSM. This study utilizes radiomic signatures of T1-weighted and T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging images to correlate with preoperative symptom severity based on modified Japanese Orthopaedic Association (mJOA) scores for patients with CSM. METHODS: Sixty-two patients with CSM were identified. Preoperative T1-weighted and T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging images for each patient were segmented from C2-C7. A total of 205 texture features were extracted from each volume of interest. After feature normalization, each second-order feature was further subdivided to yield a total of 400 features from each volume of interest for analysis. Supervised machine learning was used to build radiomic models. RESULTS: The patient cohort had a median mJOA preoperative score of 13; of which, 30 patients had a score of >13 (low severity) and 32 patients had a score of ≤13 (high severity). Radiomic analysis of T2-weighted imaging resulted in 4 radiomic signatures that correlated with preoperative mJOA with a sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 78%, 89%, and 83%, respectively (P < 0.004). The area under the curve value for the ROC curves were 0.69, 0.70, and 0.77 for models generated by independent T1 texture features, T1 and T2 texture features in combination, and independent T2 texture features, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Radiomic models correlate with preoperative mJOA scores using T2 texture features in patients with CSM. This may serve as a surrogate, objective imaging biomarker to measure the preoperative functional status of patients.

What is the effect of preoperative depression on outcomes after minimally invasive surgery for adult spinal deformity? A prospective cohort analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Depression has been implicated with worse immediate postoperative outcomes in adult spinal deformity (ASD) correction, yet the specific impact of depression on those patients undergoing minimally invasive surgery (MIS) requires further clarity. This study aimed to evaluate the role of depression in the recovery of patients with ASD after undergoing MIS. METHODS: Patients who underwent MIS for ASD with a minimum postoperative follow-up of 1 year were included from a prospectively collected, multicenter registry. Two cohorts of patients were identified that consisted of either those affirming or denying depression on preoperative assessment. The patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) compared included scores on the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), numeric rating scale (NRS) for back and leg pain, Scoliosis Research Society Outcomes Questionnaire (SRS-22), SF-36 physical component summary, SF-36 mental component summary (MCS), EQ-5D, and EQ-5D visual analog scale. RESULTS: Twenty-seven of 147 (18.4%) patients screened positive for preoperative depression. The nondepressed cohort had an average of 4.83 levels fused, and the depressed cohort had 5.56 levels fused per patient (p = 0.267). At 1-year follow-up, 10 patients still reported depression, representing a 63% decrease. Postoperatively, both cohorts demonstrated improvement in their PROMs; however, at 1-year follow-up, those without depression had statistically better outcomes based on the EQ-5D, MCS, and SRS-22 scores (p < 0.05). Patients with depression continued to experience higher NRS leg scores at 1-year follow-up (3.63 vs 2.22, p = 0.018). After controlling for covariates, the authors found that depression significantly impacted only 1-year follow-up MCS scores (ß = 8.490, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Depressed and nondepressed patients reported similar improvements after MIS surgery, except MCS scores were more likely to improve in nondepressed patients.

Impact of Educational Background on Preoperative Disease Severity and Postoperative Outcomes Among Patients With Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review of a prospectively maintained database. OBJECTIVE: Assess differences in preoperative status and postoperative outcomes among patients of different educational backgrounds undergoing surgical management of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Patient education level (EL) has been suggested to correlate with health literacy, disease perception, socioeconomic status (SES), and access to health care. METHODS: The CSM data set of the Quality Outcomes Database (QOD) was queried for patients undergoing surgical management of CSM. EL was grouped as high school or below, graduate-level, and postgraduate level. The association of EL with baseline disease severity (per patient-reported outcome measures), symptoms >3 or ≤3 months, and 24-month patient-reported outcome measures were evaluated. RESULTS: Among 1141 patients with CSM, 509 (44.6%) had an EL of high school or below, 471 (41.3%) had a graduate degree, and 161 (14.1%) had obtained postgraduate education. Lower EL was statistically significantly associated with symptom duration of >3 months (odds ratio=1.68), higher arm pain numeric rating scale (NRS) (coefficient=0.5), and higher neck pain NRS (coefficient=0.79). Patients with postgraduate education had statistically significantly lower Neck Disability Index (NDI) scores (coefficient=-7.17), lower arm pain scores (coefficient=-1), and higher quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) scores (coefficient=0.06). Twenty-four months after surgery, patients of lower EL had higher NDI scores, higher pain NRS scores, and lower QALY scores ( P <0.05 in all analyses). CONCLUSIONS: Among patients undergoing surgical management for CSM, those reporting a lower educational level tended to present with longer symptom duration, more disease-inflicted disability and pain, and lower QALY scores. As such, patients of a lower EL are a potentially vulnerable subpopulation, and their health literacy and access to care should be prioritized.

Cervical spondylotic myelopathy and driving abilities: defining the prevalence and long-term postoperative outcomes using the Quality Outcomes Database.

OBJECTIVE: Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) can cause significant difficulty with driving and a subsequent reduction in an individual's quality of life due to neurological deterioration. The positive impact of surgery on postoperative patient-reported driving capabilities has been seldom explored. METHODS: The CSM module of the Quality Outcomes Database was utilized. Patient-reported driving ability was assessed via the driving section of the Neck Disability Index (NDI) questionnaire. This is an ordinal scale in which 0 represents the absence of symptoms while driving and 5 represents a complete inability to drive due to symptoms. Patients were considered to have an impairment in their driving ability if they reported an NDI driving score of 3 or higher (signifying impairment in driving duration due to symptoms). Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to evaluate mediators of baseline impairment and improvement at 24 months after surgery, which was defined as an NDI driving score < 3. RESULTS: A total of 1128 patients who underwent surgical intervention for CSM were included, of whom 354 (31.4%) had baseline driving impairment due to CSM. Moderate (OR 2.3) and severe (OR 6.3) neck pain, severe arm pain (OR 1.6), mild-moderate (OR 2.1) and severe (OR 2.5) impairment in hand/arm dexterity, severe impairment in leg use/walking (OR 1.9), and severe impairment of urinary function (OR 1.8) were associated with impaired driving ability at baseline. Of the 291 patients with baseline impairment and available 24-month follow-up data, 209 (71.8%) reported postoperative improvement in their driving ability. This improvement seemed to be mediated particularly through the achievement of the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) in neck pain and improvement in leg function/walking. Patients with improved driving at 24 months noted higher postoperative satisfaction (88.5% vs 62.2%, p < 0.01) and were more likely to achieve a clinically significant improvement in their quality of life (50.7% vs 37.8%, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Nearly one-third of patients with CSM report impaired driving ability at presentation. Seventy-two percent of these patients reported improvements in their driving ability within 24 months of surgery. Surgical management of CSM can significantly improve patients' driving abilities at 24 months and hence patients' quality of life.

Top-ten most-cited articles on anterior column release in the context of minimally invasive lumbar interbody fusion.

Introduction: Lateral anterior column release (ACR) is a minimally invasive option for the correction of sagittal plane deformity. To assemble a homogeneous picture of published research on ACR, an advanced bibliometric analysis was conducted to compile the top-ten most-cited articles on the topic of ACR. Methods: A keyword search using the Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge was conducted to identify articles discussing the role of lateral ACR. The articles were then ranked based on the total number of citations to identify the ten most-cited articles published. A subjective appraisal of the findings of these articles was conducted to provide a ranked literature review and to examine trends in the study of ACR between 2012 and 2019. Results: The earliest published article on ACR was in 2012 by Deukmedjian et al. Three articles were in vitro biomechanical assessments of ACR, and seven articles were on outcome analyses, which were either case series or case controlled. The most-cited article was a biomechanical study authored by Uribe et al. The article with the highest rate of citations/year was authored by Manwaring et al. Uribe and the European Spine Journal were the most frequently cited author and journal, respectively. Conclusions: The lateral ACR approach has enjoyed significant scholarly attention since its advent. Higher-level analyses with robust control groups, larger sample sizes, and long-term follow-up are necessary to improve our understanding of this approach.

Strategies for spine surgeons to enhance a clinical practice and research program: stepping stones for practice management.

In this review, the value of patient-reported outcome measures, immersive technology, and patient review systems is discussed, and these strategies are presented as ways to enhance both the research and clinical aspects of a practice. The value of a research team and open access research databases is also discussed. Establishing a research program does not need elaborate resources to sustain efforts. The aforementioned simple yet effective strategies can enhance the clinical and research experience for surgeons in both academic and private practice settings.

Long-Term Durability of Stand-Alone Lateral Lumbar Interbody Fusion.

BACKGROUND: The long-term durability of stand-alone lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) remains unknown. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether early patient-reported outcome measures after stand-alone LLIF are sustained on long-term follow-up. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-six patients who underwent stand-alone LLIF between 2009 and 2017 were included in this study. Patient-reported outcome measures included the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), EuroQOL-5D (EQ-5D), and visual analog score (VAS) scores. Durable outcomes were defined as scores showing a significant improvement between preoperative and 6-week scores without demonstrating any significant decline at future time points. A repeated measures analysis was conducted using generalized estimating equations (model) to assess the outcome across different postoperative time points, including 6 weeks, 1 year, 2 years, and 5 years. RESULTS: ODI scores showed durable improvement at 5-year follow-up, with scores improving from 46.9 to 38.5 ( P = .001). Improvements in EQ-5D showed similar durability up to 5 years, improving from 0.48 to 0.65 ( P = .03). VAS scores also demonstrated significant improvements postoperatively that were durable at 2-year follow-up, improving from 7.0 to 4.6 ( P < .0001). CONCLUSION: Patients undergoing stand-alone LLIF were found to have significant improvements in ODI and EQ-5D at 6-week follow-up that remained durable up to 5 years postoperatively. VAS scores were found to be significantly improved at 6 weeks and up to 2 years postoperatively but failed to reach significance at 5 years. These findings demonstrate that patients undergoing stand-alone LLIF show significant improvement in overall disability after surgery that remains durable at long-term follow-up.

Spatial Computing for preoperative planning and postoperative evaluation of single-position lateral approaches in spinal revision surgery.

Spatial computing (SC) in a surgical context offers reconstructed interactive four-dimensional models of radiological imaging. Preoperative and postoperative assessment with SC can offer more insight into personalized surgical approaches. Spine surgery has benefitted from the use of perioperative SC assessment. Herein, we describe the use of SC to perform a perioperative assessment of a revision spinal deformity surgery. A 79-year-old wheelchair-bound male presented to the neurosurgery clinic with a history of chronic lumbar pain associated with bilateral lower extremity weakness. His surgical history is significant for an L2-L5 lumbar decompression with posterior fixation 1 year prior. On examination, there were signs of thoracic myelopathy. Imaging revealed his previous instrumentation, pseudoarthrosis, and cord compression. We perform a two-staged operation to address the thoracic spinal cord compression and myelopathy, pseudoarthrosis, and malalignment with a lack of global spinal harmony. His imaging is driven by a spatial computing and SC environment and offers support for the diagnosis of his L2-3 and L4-5 pseudoarthrosis on the reconstructed SC-based computed tomography scan. SC enabled the assessment of the configuration of the psoas muscle and course of critical neurovascular structures in addition to graft sizing, trajectory and approach, evaluation of the configuration and durability of the anterior longitudinal ligament, and the overlying abdominal viscera. SC increases the familiarity of the patient's specific anatomy and enhances perioperative assessment. As such, SC can be used to preoperatively plan for spinal revision surgery.

Durability of stand-alone anterolateral interbody fusion in staged minimally invasive circumferential scoliosis surgery with delayed posterior instrumentation due to medical necessity.

PURPOSE: Circumferential minimally invasive scoliosis surgeries are often staged, wherein anterior and/or lateral lumbar interbody fusion is followed by percutaneous posterior fixation days later. This study examines the impact on outcomes when posterior augmentation was delayed due to unexpected medical issues following the first stage, anterolateral procedure. METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted of all patients undergoing minimally invasive circumferential deformity corrections from 2006 to 2019. Patients in whom planned posterior fixation was postponed due to medical necessity or safety concerns were identified. Perioperative surgical metrics and radiographic parameters were collected. RESULTS: Three of the six patients initially scheduled for circumferential fusion never underwent posterior augmentation due to symptomatic improvement (2.3, 5, and 10.7 years of follow-up). The other three underwent posterior fixation once medically optimized after an average interval of 4.7 months (range 3.2-7.8 months) due to persistent symptoms. It was also observed that the average coronal malalignment in the postoperative period was 5.1 cm in the group requiring further fixation and only 1.6 cm in the group which did not. CONCLUSION: In select cases, the indirect decompression and stability conferred by minimally invasive anterolateral arthrodesis alone may afford adequate pain relief to delay or even avoid posterior fixation in patients with adult spinal deformity.

Augmenting Career Longevity: An Analysis of Ergonomics Training Among 134 Neurological Surgeons.

BACKGROUND: Work-related pain among neurosurgeons remains understudied, yet can have long-term consequences which affect operative efficiency and efficacy, career longevity, and life outside of work. OBJECTIVE: This study provides insight into the extent of pain experienced by neurosurgeons and the effect of ergonomics training on pain. METHODS: An online survey pertaining to ergonomics and pain was sent to all neurosurgeons on the Council of State Neurosurgical Societies (CSNS) email distribution list. Statistical comparisons of age groups against pain levels and ergonomics training against pain levels, as well as multivariate linear regression of demographics, training, and operating factors against pain levels were performed. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty-four neurosurgeons responded to the survey. The mean average severity of pain across respondents was 3.3/10 and the mean peak severity of pain was 5.1/10. Among the reported peak pain severity scores, neurosurgeons with 21-30 years of operating experience had significantly higher pain scores than those with 11-20 years of experience (mean 6.2 vs. 4.2; P < 0.05), while neurosurgeons with more than 30 years of experience had significantly less pain than those with 21-30 years of experience (mean 4.4 vs. 6.2, P = 0.005). Training in ergonomics did not significantly improve respondents' reported peak or mean pain severities (17.9% reported having ergonomics training). CONCLUSIONS: Ergonomics training did not appear to make a difference in neurosurgeons' pain severities. This may signify a need to optimize ergonomics pedagogy to achieve observable benefits.

Long-term Benefits for Younger Patients with Aggressive Immediate Intervention following Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Longitudinal Cohort Analysis of 175 Patients from a Prospective Registry.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) continues to rise, in part as a reflection of a growing elderly population. Concomitantly, nihilism may exist following substantial neurotrauma from a myriad of commonplace mechanisms, such as traffic incidents, assaults, or falls. OBJECTIVE: This study assesses long-term outcomes following aggressive surgical intervention with invasive neuromonitoring to guard against nihilism, especially for patients with advantageous characteristics such as younger age. METHODS: A consecutive series of patients with severe TBI treated between 2008 and 2018 and enrolled into the Brain Trauma Research Center (BTRC) database, an Institutional Review Board (IRB 19030228) approved prospective, longitudinal cohort study, were extracted. Demographic and clinical data were analyzed. Long-term functional outcome was recorded with the eight-point Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOS-E) score at 3-, 6-, 12-, and 24-months by trained, qualified neuropsychology technicians. Chi-squared and analysis of variance tests were used to evaluate the relationship of age groups between different variables. RESULTS: For this analysis, 175 patients with severe TBI who were enrolled in the BTRC database and required decompressive hemicraniectomy during the study period were included. Over one-third of the patients with a severe TBI, who were aged 35 years and younger, had a favorable outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Despite enduring a severe TBI, a substantial percentage of younger patients achieved favorable outcomes following aggressive treatment. As such, establishing a prognosis should be deferred to allow for recovery via individualized rehabilitation, multidisciplinary support, and community reintegration programs to cope with various long-term psychological, cognitive, and functional disabilities.

Current Trends in Subspecialty Fellowship Training for 1691 Academic Neurological Surgeons.

OBJECTIVE: Neurosurgical subspecialty fellowship training has become increasingly popular in recent decades. However, few studies have evaluated recent trends in postgraduate subspecialty education. This study aims to provide a detailed cross-sectional analysis of subspecialty fellowship training completion trends and demographics among U.S. academic neurosurgeons. METHODS: Academic clinical faculty (M.D. or D.O.) teaching at accredited neurosurgery programs were included. Demographic, career, and fellowship data were collected from departmental physician profiles and the American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS) membership database. Relative citation ratio scores were retrieved using the National Institutes of Health iCite tool. RESULTS: This study included 1691 surgeons (1756 fellowships) from 125 institutions. The majority (79.13%) reported fellowship training. Fellowship completion was more common among recent graduates (residency year >2000), as was training in multiple subspecialties (P < 0.0001). Spine was the most popular subspecialty (16.04%), followed by pediatrics (11.18%), and cerebrovascular (9.46%). The least common were trauma/critical care (2.52%) and peripheral nerve (1.26%). Spine, neuroradiology, and endovascular subspecialties grew in popularity over time. Pediatrics and spine were the most popular for females and males, respectively. Epilepsy and cerebrovascular had the most full professors, while endovascular and spine had the most assistant professors. Stereotactic/functional and epilepsy had the most Ph.Ds. Fellowship training correlated with higher weighted, but not mean, relative citation ratio scores among associate (P = 0.002) and full professors (P = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: There is an emerging proclivity for additional fellowship training among young neurosurgeons, often in multiple subspecialties. These findings are intended to help guide professional decision-making and optimize the delivery of postgraduate education.

Geographic Distribution in Training and Practice of Academic Neurological and Orthopedic Spine Surgeons in the United States.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to stratify the geographic distribution of academic spine surgeons in the United States, analyzing how this distribution highlights differences in academic, demographic, professional metrics, and gaps in access to spine care. METHODS: Spine surgeons were identified using American Association of Neurological Surgeons and American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons databases, categorizing into geographic regions of training and practice. Departmental websites, National Institutes of Health (NIH) RePort Expenditures and Results, Google Patent, and NIH icite databases were queried for demographic and professional metrics. RESULTS: Academic spine surgeons (347 neurological; 314 orthopedic) are predominantly male (95%) and few have patents (23%) or NIH funding (4%). Regionally, the Northeast has the highest proportion per capita (3.28 surgeons per million), but California is the state with the highest proportion (13%). The Northeast has the greatest regional retention post-residency at 74%, followed by the Midwest (59%). The West and South are more associated with additional degrees. Neurosurgery-trained surgeons hold more additional degrees (17%) than orthopedic surgeons (8%), whereas more orthopedic surgeons hold leadership positions (34%) than neurosurgeons (20%). CONCLUSIONS: Academic spine surgeons are found at the highest proportion in the Northeast and California; the Northeast has the greatest regional retention. Spine neurosurgeons have more additional degrees, whereas spine orthopedic surgeons have more leadership positions. These results are relevant to training programs looking to correct geographic disparities, surgeons in search of training programs, or students in pursuit of spine surgery.