Identification of spayed and neutered cats and dogs: Veterinary training and compliance with practice guidelines.

Spay/neuter identification tattoos and ear-tipping are simple and cost-effective methods to minimize the likelihood of unnecessary anesthesia and surgery in companion animals or the misidentification of sexually intact animals. This study assessed training of sterilization identifiers in US and Canadian veterinary schools and practitioner compliance with guidelines for identifiers via surveys conducted in 2019. Faculty in all 34 schools responded to the survey, reporting that curricula included sterilization identifiers in 31% of lecture-based training, 75% of spay/neuter laboratory-based training, and 38% of clinical practice-based training. A total of 425 facilities performing spay/neuter reported frequency and technical aspects of sterilization identifiers in client-owned and unowned (shelter, rescue, trap-neuter-return) animals. Facilities encountering large numbers of animals of unknown background, performing a high number of surgeries, or with specialized spay/neuter training were significantly more likely to use identifiers. Only 5% of private practices tattooed all owned animals, and 21% tattooed all unowned animals. In contrast, 80% of shelters and 72% of spay/neuter clinics tattooed all owned animals, and 84% of shelters and 70% of spay/neuter clinics tattooed all unowned animals. Green was the most common tattoo color (97%); the most common placement was near or in the incision for female cats (99%), female dogs (99%), and male dogs (92%), and ventral abdomen in male cats (55%). Enhanced training and implementation of best practices described in professional guidelines for sterilization identifiers are needed throughout the veterinary industry to protect animals from unnecessary procedures and to prevent unintended litters in animals misidentified as previously sterilized.

The effect of sandstorms and air pollution on cause-specific hospital admissions in Taipei, Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: Relatively little research exists focusing on the impact of air pollution on hospital admissions in Asia compared to the extensive work conducted in the USA and Europe. The issue is of particular importance because of the frequency, intensity and health effects of Asian sandstorms. This work investigates the relation between cause-specific hospital admissions and sandstorms and air pollution in Taipei, Taiwan's capital. METHODS: Time-series analyses of asthma, pneumonia, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease hospital admissions were performed for Taipei. An eight-year time period (1995-2002) was considered for various indicators of sandstorms and the pollutants NO(2), CO, ozone, SO(2), PM(10), and PM(2.5). Pollution effects based on single-day lags of 0, 1, 2 and 3 days were explored, along with the average of the same day and previous three days (L03). RESULTS: The risk of ischaemic heart disease admissions was associated with several sandstorm metrics, including indicators of high PM(10) levels in the Taipei area, indicators of high PM(10) at a monitor designed to measure background pollution, the PM coarse fraction, and the ratio of PM(10) to PM(2.5). However, the lag structure of effect was not consistent across sandstorm indicators. Hospital admissions for this disease were 16-21% higher on sandstorm days compared to other days. This cause was also associated with transportation-related pollutants, NO(2), CO and PM(2.5). Asthma admissions rose 4.48% (95% CI 0.71% to 8.38%) per 28 mug/m(3) increase in L03 PM(10) levels and 7.60% (95% CI 2.87% to 12.54%) per 10 ppb increase in L03 ozone. Cerebrovascular disease admissions were associated with PM(10) and CO, both at lag 3 days. SO(2) exhibited no relation with admissions. CONCLUSIONS: Risk of hospital admissions in Taipei may be increased by air pollution and sandstorms. Additional research is needed to clarify the lag structure and magnitude of such effects.

Differentiation of feline immunodeficiency virus vaccination, infection, or vaccination and infection in cats.

BACKGROUND: Serodiagnosis of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is complicated by the use of a formalin-inactivated whole-virus FIV vaccine. Cats respond to immunization with antibodies indistinguishable from those produced during natural infection by currently available diagnostic tests, which are unable to distinguish cats that are vaccinated against FIV, infected with FIV, or both. HYPOTHESIS: An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) detecting antibodies against formalin-treated FIV whole virus and untreated transmembrane peptide will distinguish uninfected from infected cats, regardless of vaccination status. ANIMALS: Blood samples were evaluated from uninfected unvaccinated cats (n = 73 samples), uninfected FIV-vaccinated cats (n = 89), and FIV-infected cats (n = 102, including 3 from cats that were also vaccinated). METHODS: The true status of each sample was determined by virus isolation. Plasma samples were tested for FIV antibodies by a commercial FIV diagnostic assay and an experimental discriminant ELISA. RESULTS: All samples from uninfected cats were correctly identified by the discriminant ELISA (specificity 100%). Of the samples collected from FIV-infected cats, 99 were correctly identified as FIV-infected (sensitivity 97.1%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: With the exception of viral isolation, the discriminant ELISA is the most reliable assay for diagnosis of FIV. A practical strategy for the diagnosis of FIV infection would be to use existing commercial FIV antibody assays as screening tests. Negative results with commercial assays are highly reliable predictors for lack of infection. Positive results can be confirmed with the discriminant ELISA. If the discriminant ELISA is negative, the cat is probably vaccinated against FIV but not infected. Positive results are likely to represent infection.

Infectious diseases of dogs and cats on Isabela Island, Galapagos.

BACKGROUND: Vaccination and importation of dogs and cats are prohibited in the Galapagos, resulting in a uniquely isolated population. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of infectious diseases of dogs and cats that impact their health, could spill over to native wildlife, or sentinel diseases of concern to humans. HYPOTHESIS: The isolation of dogs and cats in the Galapagos protects them from diseases common in mainland populations. ANIMALS: Ninety-five dogs and 52 cats presented during a neutering campaign. METHODS: A prospective cross-sectional study was performed. Blood was collected for serological and DNA evaluation of a panel of infectious diseases. RESULTS: Antibodies against parvovirus (100%), parainfluenza virus (100%), adenovirus 1/2 (66-67%), and distemper virus (22%) were present in dogs. Dirofilaria immitis was also common in dogs (34%), with lower prevalences of Wolbachia pipiens (22%), Bartonella sp. (13%), Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. (1%), and Mycoplasma haemocanis (1%) observed. Antibodies against panleukopenia virus (67%), Toxoplasma gondii (63%), calicivirus (44%), and herpesvirus 1 (10%) were detected in cats. Feline leukemia virus antigen, feline immunodeficiency virus antibody, or coronavirus antibodies were not detected. Bartonella sp. (44%) infections were common in cats, but only one was infected with M. haemofelis. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Despite their relative seclusion from the rest of the world, cats and dogs of Isabela were exposed to many pathogens found in mainland South America. Parasite prophylaxis, neutering, and strict enforcement of animal movement restrictions would control a majority of the diseases. In the absence of vaccination, a reservoir of susceptible animals remains vulnerable to new disease introductions.

Rapid Diagnosis of Babesia gibsoni by Point-of-Need Testing by Insulated Isothermal PCR in Dogs at High Risk of Infection.

BACKGROUND: Dogs seized by law enforcement agencies during dogfighting investigations are at increased risk of Babesia gibsoni infection. A rapid and cost-effective diagnostic test would increase the feasibility of mass screening of dogs for infection and monitoring treatment efficacy in B. gibsoni-infected dogs. OBJECTIVE: To determine the performance of a point-of-need insulated isothermal PCR (iiPCR) test for diagnosis of B. gibsoni in dogs rescued in dogfighting investigations. ANIMALS: Two hundred and thirty-three dogs seized in dogfighting investigations. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. Whole blood samples were tested for B. gibsoni and Babesia spp. by iiPCR. Results were compared to a reference standard comprised of concordant results from real-time PCR in a commercial diagnostic laboratory and antibody titers. RESULTS: The iiPCR system was quick to learn, portable, and had a short processing time of <2 hours. Sensitivity and specificity of the iiPCR assay for B. gibsoni were 90% (95% confidence interval [CI] 81-95%) and 99% (CI, 95-100%), respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of the iiPCR assay for Babesia spp. were 87% (CI, 78-93%) and 98% (CI, 0.94-99%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The iiPCR system produced few false-positive results, indicating that positive results are likely to represent true infections when used in high-risk animals. The iiPCR system can fail to identify 10-15% of truly infected dogs. However, the portability, speed, and economy of the iiPCR system compared to testing through a reference laboratory can allow rescue groups to screen and identify infection in more dogs.

Prevalence of enteropathogens in cats with and without diarrhea in four different management models for unowned cats in the southeast United States.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of enteropathogens in cats with and without diarrhea in four different models for managing unowned cats: short-term animal shelter, long-term sanctuary, home-based foster care, and trap-neuter-return. Fecal samples from 482 cats, approximately half of the cats with normal fecal consistency and half with diarrhea, were tested by zinc sulfate centrifugation and by real-time PCR for a panel of enteropathogens. At least one enteropathogen of feline or zoonotic importance was detected in a majority of cats, regardless of management model. For most enteropathogens, the presence or absence of diarrhea was not significantly associated with infection, the exceptions being Tritrichomonas foetus in sanctuary cats with diarrhea (26%) and normal fecal consistency (10%), respectively (P≤0.04), and feline coronavirus in foster cats (80% and 58%) (P≤0.001). The types of enteropathogens detected were related to the type of management model, e.g., viral and protozoal infections were most common in shelters, sanctuaries, and foster homes (confinement systems), whereas helminth infections were most common in trap-neuter-return programs (free-roaming cats). These results suggest that management practices for unowned cats are inadequate for control of enteropathogens and that the presence of diarrhea is a poor indicator of enteropathogen carriage. Risk-management strategies to reduce transmission to people and other animals should focus on sanitation, housing, compliance with preventive care guidelines, periodic surveillance, response to specific enteropathogens, humane population management of free-roaming community cats, public health education, and minimizing the duration and number of cats in mass confinement.

Pericardial lipoma in a geriatric dog with an incidentally discovered thoracic mass.

An intrathoracic mass was discovered as an incidental finding in a 14-year-old, spayed, female Rottweiler cross during evaluation of urinary incontinence. Computed tomography suggested a pericardial or pleural location and high adipose content of the mass. The mass was removed via lateral thoracotomy with partial pericardectomy and was diagnosed as a pericardial lipoma. The dog recovered well, and there was no evidence of recurrence approximately one year later. Adipose tumours of the heart and its associated structures are rare in dogs and have been associated with both successful and fatal outcomes.

Performance of 4 Point-of-Care Screening Tests for Feline Leukemia Virus and Feline Immunodeficiency Virus.

BACKGROUND: More than 3 million cats in the United States are infected with FeLV or FIV. The cornerstone of control is identification and segregation of infected cats. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To compare test performance with well-characterized clinical samples of currently available FeLV antigen/FIV antibody combination test kits. ANIMALS: Surplus serum and plasma from diagnostic samples submitted by animal shelters, diagnostic laboratories, veterinary clinics, and cat research colonies. None of the cats had been vaccinated against FIV. The final sample set included 146 FeLV+, 154 FeLV-, 94 FIV+, and 97 FIV- samples. METHODS: Prospective, blind comparison to a gold standard: Samples were evaluated in 4 different point-of-care tests by ELISA antigen plate tests (FeLV) and virus isolation (FIV) as the reference standards. All test results were visually read by 2 blinded observers. RESULTS: Sensitivity and specificity, respectively, for FeLV were SNAP® (100%/100%), WITNESS® (89.0%/95.5%), Anigen® (91.8%/95.5%), and VetScan® (85.6%/85.7%). Sensitivity and specificity for FIV were SNAP® (97.9%/99.0%), WITNESS® (94.7%/100%), Anigen® (96.8%/99.0%), and VetScan® (91.5%/99.0%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The SNAP® test had the best performance for FeLV, but there were no significant differences for FIV. In typical cat populations with seroprevalence of 1-5%, a majority of positive results reported by most point-of-care test devices would be false-positives. This could result in unnecessary segregation or even euthanasia.

Efficacy of Azithromycin and Compounded Atovaquone for Treatment of Babesia gibsoni in Dogs.

BACKGROUND: Approximately one-third of dogs confiscated during dogfighting investigations are infected with Babesia gibsoni. Traditional management of B. gibsoni with polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-screening, treatment with commercially available azithromycin and atovaquone, and PCR testing after 60 and 90 days is costly and impractical for large numbers of dogs at a time. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy of an alternative protocol in which commercial atovaquone was replaced by compounded medication and PCR monitoring was initiated at 30 days after the end of treatment to decrease the total management time. METHODS: Prospective observational study. Forty-two pit bull-type dogs confiscated as part of an investigation of dogfighting, diagnosed with B. gibsoni infection, and judged to be suitable for adoption were treated with azithromycin (10 mg/kg PO q24h) and compounded atovaquone (13.4 mg/kg PO q8h with a fatty meal) for 10 days. PCR testing was repeated at 30 and 60 days after end of treatment if dogs with positive PCR tests at either time were tested at 90 days. Treatment was considered successful; 2 PCR tests 30 days apart were negative. RESULTS: Treatment was successful in 39 dogs (93%) as defined by 2 consecutive PCR-negative test results 30 days apart. In 38 dogs (90%), PCR results were the same at 30 and 60 days. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Use of compounded atovaquone and a reduced monitoring period can reduce costs and holding times without compromising treatment efficacy. This more economical protocol can remove barriers to mass screening and management of B. gibsoni infections in dogfighting cases.

Perioperative mortality in cats and dogs undergoing spay or castration at a high-volume clinic.

High volume spay-neuter (spay-castration) clinics have been established to improve population control of cats and dogs to reduce the number of animals admitted to and euthanazed in animal shelters. The rise in the number of spay-neuter clinics in the USA has been accompanied by concern about the quality of animal care provided in high volume facilities, which focus on minimally invasive, time saving techniques, high throughput and simultaneous management of multiple animals under various stages of anesthesia. The aim of this study was to determine perioperative mortality for cats and dogs in a high volume spay-neuter clinic in the USA. Electronic medical records and a written mortality log were used to collect data for 71,557 cats and 42,349 dogs undergoing spay-neuter surgery from 2010 to 2016 at a single high volume clinic in Florida. Perioperative mortality was defined as deaths occurring in the 24h period starting with the administration of the first sedation or anesthetic drugs. Perioperative mortality was reported for 34 cats and four dogs for an overall mortality of 3.3 animals/10,000 surgeries (0.03%). The risk of mortality was more than twice as high for females (0.05%) as for males (0.02%) (P=0.008) and five times as high for cats (0.05%) as for dogs (0.009%) (P=0.0007). High volume spay-neuter surgery was associated with a lower mortality rate than that previously reported in low volume clinics, approaching that achieved in human surgery. This is likely to be due to the young, healthy population of dogs and cats, and the continuous refinement of techniques based on experience and the skills and proficiency of teams that specialize in a limited spectrum of procedures.

Infectious diseases in dogs rescued during dogfighting investigations.

Dogs used for dogfighting often receive minimal preventive health care, and the potential for spread of infectious diseases is high. The purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence of infectious diseases in dogs rescued from fighting operations to guide medical protocols for their immediate and long-term care. A total of 269 pit bull-type dogs were seized in a multi-state investigation. Fleas were present on most dogs, but few ticks were observed. Testing performed at intake included packed cell volume (PCV), serology and PCR for vector-borne pathogens, and fecal analysis. The most common infections were Babesia gibsoni (39%), 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' (32%), Mycoplasma haemocanis (30%), Dirofilaria immitis (12%), and Ancylostoma (23%). Anemia was associated with B. gibsoni infection (63% of infected dogs, odds ratio = 2.5, P <0.001), but not with hemotropic mycoplasmas or Ancylostoma. Pit bull heritage and dogfighting are known risk factors for B. gibsoni infection, possibly via blood transmission from bites and vertical transmission. Hemotropic mycoplasmas have a similar risk pattern. Empirical care for dogs from dogfighting cases should include broad-spectrum internal and external parasiticides and monitoring for anemia. Dogfighting case responders should be prepared for mass screening and treatment of B. gibsoni and heartworm infections and should implement protocols to prevent transmission of infectious and zoonotic diseases in the shelter and following adoption. Former fighting dogs and dogs with possible dog bite scars should not be used as blood donors due to the risk of vector-borne pathogens that can escape detection and for which curative treatment is difficult to document.

Inconsistent identification of pit bull-type dogs by shelter staff.

Shelter staff and veterinarians routinely make subjective dog breed identification based on appearance, but their accuracy regarding pit bull-type breeds is unknown. The purpose of this study was to measure agreement among shelter staff in assigning pit bull-type breed designations to shelter dogs and to compare breed assignments with DNA breed signatures. In this prospective cross-sectional study, four staff members at each of four different shelters recorded their suspected breed(s) for 30 dogs; there was a total of 16 breed assessors and 120 dogs. The terms American pit bull terrier, American Staffordshire terrier, Staffordshire bull terrier, pit bull, and their mixes were included in the study definition of 'pit bull-type breeds.' Using visual identification only, the median inter-observer agreements and kappa values in pair-wise comparisons of each of the staff breed assignments for pit bull-type breed vs. not pit bull-type breed ranged from 76% to 83% and from 0.44 to 0.52 (moderate agreement), respectively. Whole blood was submitted to a commercial DNA testing laboratory for breed identification. Whereas DNA breed signatures identified only 25 dogs (21%) as pit bull-type, shelter staff collectively identified 62 (52%) dogs as pit bull-type. Agreement between visual and DNA-based breed assignments varied among individuals, with sensitivity for pit bull-type identification ranging from 33% to 75% and specificity ranging from 52% to 100%. The median kappa value for inter-observer agreement with DNA results at each shelter ranged from 0.1 to 0.48 (poor to moderate). Lack of consistency among shelter staff indicated that visual identification of pit bull-type dogs was unreliable.

CD8+ thymic lymphocytes express reduced levels of CD8beta and increased interferon gamma in cats perinatally infected with the JSY3 molecular clone of feline immunodeficiency virus.

Biological isolates of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) cause a relative expansion of activated single-positive CD8(+) (SP CD8(+)) lymphocytes within the thymus of infected cats. In this study, thymic SP CD8(+) lymphocytes were analyzed from cats inoculated as neonates with a pathogenic molecular clone of FIV, JSY3, which was previously derived from the wild-type biological isolate FIV(NCSU-1) (NCSU-1). Four cats were inoculated intraperitoneally with NCSU-1 and compared with 11 cats inoculated with JSY3. Five control cats matched in litter and age were administered an intraperitoneal sham inoculum. Between 12 and 16 weeks postinoculation, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) mRNA was quantified by RT-PCR in freshly isolated thymocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The quantity of IFN-gamma mRNA was increased more than 10-fold in thymocytes and PBMCs of 13 of 13 FIV-inoculated cats as compared with the sham-inoculated controls. IFN-gamma mRNA coenriched with magnetically sorted CD8(+) PBMCs and single-positive (SP) CD8(+) thymocytes. Cells expressing IFN-gamma mRNA were located within the thymic perivascular zone, along the corticomedullary junction, and adjacent to lymphoid follicles. The expansion of thymic SP CD8(+) cells was associated with an increase in CD8alpha(+)/beta(neg) and CD8alpha(+)/beta(lo) phenotypes, the latter population resembling a previously reported memory/effector peripheral blood cell with FIV suppressor activity. From these data we conclude that JSY3 and NCSU-1 induce similar phenotypic changes in thymic and peripheral blood CD8(+) cells. Thus, JSY3 is pathogenic for the thymus in vivo and will be useful for defining determinants of the CD8(+) cell response in this pediatric AIDS model.

Feline immunodeficiency virus is shed in semen from experimentally and naturally infected cats.

Although a laboratory isolate of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), FIV-NCSU1, has been transmitted by artificial insemination in domestic cats, transmission by naturally infected males during mating has not been reported. In order to determine whether virus shedding in semen is unique to the NCSU1 isolate, we analyzed electroejaculates from four specific-pathogen-free males infected with another laboratory strain, FIV-Petaluma, and eight random source males with naturally acquired infections. Seminal cell lysates from the cats infected with the Petaluma isolate were screened by nested polymerase chain reaction amplification for FIV gag DNA. Seminal cells and seminal plasma from these FIV-Petaluma cats were further analyzed for the presence of virus by cocultivation with a feline CD4+ T cell line and Crandell feline kidney cells. Electroejaculates from the naturally infected cats were cocultivated with the T cell line. Our results demonstrated that cell-free FIV was present in seminal plasma from two FIV-Petaluma cats and two naturally infected cats. Cell-associated seminal virus was detected in all of the FIV-Petaluma infected cats and one naturally infected cat. Secretion of viral gag p26 antigen, an indication of active viral replication, was evident in cocultures containing motile sperm purified by a swim-up procedure from a FIV-Petaluma cat. These results confirm that FIV shedding in semen is not restricted to a specific virus isolate. Furthermore, swim-up sperm from FIV-infected cats may be infectious in vitro.

Naturally occurring Sarcocystis infection in domestic cats (Felis catus).

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis is an important neurological disease of horses in the United States. Consequently, there is an active research effort to identify hosts associated with the primary causative agent, Sarcocystis neurona. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the domestic cat (Felis catus) is a natural host for S. neurona. Muscle sections from 50 primarily free-roaming domestic cats were examined for the presence of sarcocysts. Serum from cats in this group and another group of 50 free-roaming cats were evaluated for the presence of S. neurona antibody. Sarcocysts were found in five of 50 (10%) cats, and S. neurona antibody in five of 100 (5%) cats. Morphological, molecular (including ribosomal RNA genes), and biological characterisation of these sarcocysts showed that they were not S. neurona or S. neurona-like. Sarcocysts found in the cats were identified morphologically as Sarcocystis felis, a common parasite of wild felids. The life cycle of S. felis is not known, and prior to this study, no molecular marker for S. felis existed. Although cats were found to be infected with S. felis sarcocysts, serological data provided evidence of possible infection with S. neurona as well. Further work is needed to determine the role of the domestic cat in the life cycle of S. neurona.

Psychostimulant response in AIDS-related complex patients.

Methylphenidate or dextroamphetamine was used to treat 17 of 32 patients with AIDS-related complex who were referred for neuropsychiatric evaluation of symptoms representative of cognitive and/or affective dysfunction. All 17 patients were found to have some degree of cognitive impairment. Psychiatric diagnoses included organic mental disorder (8), adjustment disorder (5), and major depression (4). The 17 patients were receiving no other psychoactive or neurotoxic medications nor were they receiving concomitant investigational antiviral or chemotherapeutic agents. Clinical response to psychostimulant therapy was rated using the Efficacy Index of the Clinical Global Impressions. Pharmacotherapy with either psychostimulant was clinically effective in improving affective parameters in 89.5% (15) of the 17 patients, with 79% (13) of the 17 achieving a moderate to marked response. No adverse side effects were encountered.

The management of depression and anxiety in the elderly.

The most common psychiatric disorders in later life, with the exception of dementia, are depression and anxiety. Often underdiagnosed or simply accepted with resignation as an inevitable part of aging or as an unavoidable complication of other constitutional illnesses, these disorders contribute to excess disability in older patients and further compromise their quality of life. This report discusses depression and anxiety in the growing elderly population--its prevalence, detection methods, diagnostic considerations, and present interventions.

Psychopharmacology in HIV spectrum disorders.

The psychiatric complications of HIV spectrum disorders are common and diverse in nature. HIV itself undermines the individual's psychological functioning by attacking the CNS and further compromises the patient's psychosocial and coping capacity. Psychopharmacologic strategies are vastly underutilized in the management of these psychiatric complications but often must be innovative, given the complexities of medical management in most of these cases. Conventional and innovative psychopharmacologic interventions when used as part of an integrated comprehensive biopsychosocial approach are effective adjuvants that help patients achieve the greatest functional adaptation possible.

The use of molindone in the treatment of psychotic and delirious patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Case reports.

Four patients with HIV infection and psychosis from various etiologies, refractory to standard treatments, and suffering from severe extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS), had a marked beneficial response to molindone. There was significant control of neuropsychiatric dysfunction without major adverse side effects. The results suggest that further evaluation is warranted of the use of molindone in treating severely ill, psychotic, or delirious HIV-infected patients.

Constitutive expression of types 1 and 2 cytokines by alveolar macrophages from feline immunodeficiency virus-infected cats.

Evidence suggests that feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), causes pulmonary immunodeficiency. The overall objective of this study was to explore FIV-induced alterations in cell counts and cytokine gene expression in the pulmonary compartment during the acute stage infection. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells were collected from FIV-infected and control cats at 0, 4, 10, and 16 weeks post-FIV infection for phenotype and cytokine analysis. The major change in BAL cellular populations following FIV-infection was the development of a neutrophilia. Total BAL cell counts and relative numbers of alveolar macrophages (AM), eosinophils, and lymphocytes remained similar in both groups. The RT-qcPCR analyses of AM purified from BAL showed constitutive expression of TNFalpha, IL6 and IL10 mRNAs that peaked during the acute stage of infection then declined. The TNFalpha and IL6 bioactive protein secretion showed a similar response. In contrast, IFNgamma expression increased progressively with time after infection and paralleled a progressive increase in FIV-gag mRNA in AM. The IL12 p40 expression also differed from the other cytokines in that there was a progressive decrease in the number of cats with AM IL12 expression following FIV infection. Infection of AM in vitro with FIV also caused an increase in TNFalpha and IL6 mRNA and bioactive protein suggesting that the increased cytokine response by AM following infection of cats with FIV is an intrinsic characteristic of FIV-infected AM. In summary, pulmonary immune changes seen in FIV-infected cats are similar to those seen in HIV-infected human patients.