Missed Opportunities for Preventing Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Florida, 2007-2014.

OBJECTIVES: Despite declining numbers of perinatally exposed infants, an increase in perinatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections from 2011 to 2013 prompted this study to identify missed perinatal HIV prevention opportunities. METHODS: Deidentified records of children born from 2007 through 2014, exposed to HIV perinatally, and reported to the Florida Department of Health were obtained. Crude relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for factors associated with perinatal transmission, nondiagnosis of maternal HIV infection, and nonreceipt of antiretroviral medication were calculated. RESULTS: Of the 4337 known singleton births exposed to maternal HIV infection, 70 (1.6%) were perinatally infected. Among perinatal transmission cases, more than one-third of mothers used illegal drugs or acquired a sexually transmitted infection during pregnancy. Perinatal transmission was most strongly associated with maternal HIV diagnosis during labor and delivery (RR 5.66, 95% CI 2.31-13.91) or after birth (RR 26.50, 95% CI 15.44-45.49) compared with antenatally or prenatally. Among the 29 women whose infection was not known before pregnancy and whose child was perinatally infected, 18 were not diagnosed during pregnancy; 12 had evidence of an acute HIV infection, and 6 had no prenatal care. CONCLUSIONS: Late diagnosis of maternal HIV infection appeared to be primarily the result of acute maternal infections and inadequate prenatal care. In Florida, effective programs to improve utilization of prenatal care and detection and primary prevention of prenatal acute infection are needed.

Completeness of HIV reporting on death certificates for Floridians reported with HIV infection, 2000-2011.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) mortality is used as a key measure to monitor the impact of HIV throughout the world. It is important that HIV be correctly recorded on death certificates so that the burden of HIV mortality can be tracked accurately. The objective of this study was to determine the extent of failure to correctly report HIV on death certificates and examine patterns of incompleteness by demographic factors. Causes of death on death certificates of people infected with HIV reported to the Florida HIV surveillance system 2000-2011 were analyzed to determine the proportion without mention of HIV who had an underlying cause of death suggestive of HIV based on World Health Organization recommendations. Of the 11,989 deaths, 8089 (67.5%) had an HIV code (B20-B24, R75) as any of the causes of death, 3091 (25.8%) had no mention of HIV and the underlying cause was not suggestive of HIV, and 809 (6.7%) had no mention of HIV but the underlying cause was suggestive of HIV. Therefore, 9.1% (809/8898) of probable HIV-related deaths had no mention of HIV on the death certificate. Dying within 1 month of HIV diagnosis was the factor most strongly associated with no mention of HIV when the underlying cause was suggestive of HIV on the death certificate. The results suggest that HIV mortality using only vital records may underestimate actual HIV mortality by approximately 9%. Efforts to reduce incompleteness of reporting of HIV on death certificates could improve HIV-related mortality estimates.

Migration patterns among Floridians with AIDS, 1993-2007: implications for HIV prevention and care.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize migration patterns among people diagnosed as having and who died of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) from 1993 to 2007 because migrating to a new community can disrupt human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS care delivery and patients' adherence to care and affect migrants' social services and healthcare needs. METHODS: Florida AIDS surveillance data were used to describe patterns of migration among people diagnosed as having and who died of AIDS from 1993 to 2007. Individual and community characteristics were compared between residence at the time of AIDS diagnosis and residence at the time of death by type of migration. RESULTS: Of 31,816 people in the cohort, 2510 (7.9%) migrated to another county in Florida and 1306 (4.1%) migrated to another state. Interstate migrants were more likely to be men, 20 to 39 years old, non-Hispanic white, and born in the United States, to have had a transmission mode of injection drug use (IDU) or men who have sex with men with IDU (MSM&IDU), and to have been diagnosed before 1999. Intercounty migrants were more likely to be non-Hispanic white, younger than 60 years, have had a transmission mode of MSM, IDU, or MSM&IDU, have higher CD4 counts/percentages, and to have lived in areas with low levels of poverty or low physician density. There was a small net movement from urban to rural areas within the state. CONCLUSIONS: A sizable percentage of people, particularly younger people and people with a transmission mode of IDU and IDU&MSM, migrated at least once between the time of their AIDS diagnosis and death. This has important implications for care and treatment, as well as efforts to prevent the disease. Further research is needed to explore barriers and facilitators to access to care upon migration and to assess the need for programs to help people transfer their human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS care, ensuring continuity of care and adherence.

Community poverty and trends in racial/ethnic survival disparities among people diagnosed with AIDS in Florida, 1993-2004.

OBJECTIVES: We described the racial/ethnic disparities in survival among people diagnosed with AIDS in Florida from 1993 to 2004, as the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) became widespread. We determined whether these disparities decreased after controlling for measures of community-level socioeconomic status. METHODS: We compared survival from all causes between non-Hispanic Blacks and non-Hispanic Whites vis-a-vis survival curves and Cox proportional hazards models controlling for demographic, clinical, and area-level poverty factors. RESULTS: Racial/ethnic disparities in survival peaked for those diagnosed during the early implementation of HAART (1996-1998) with a Black-to-White hazard ratio (HR) of 1.72 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.62, 1.83) for males and 1.40 (95% CI = 1.24, 1.59) for females. These HRs declined significantly to 1.48 (95% CI = 1.35, 1.64) for males and nonsignificantly to 1.25 (95% CI = 1.05, 1.48) for females in the 2002 to 2004 diagnosis cohort. Disparities decreased significantly for males but not females when controlling for baseline demographic factors and CD4 count and percentage, and became nonsignificant in the 2002 to 2004 cohort after controlling for area poverty. CONCLUSIONS: Area poverty appears to play a role in racial/ethnic disparities even after controlling for demographic factors and CD4 count and percentage.

Measuring socioeconomic inequality in the incidence of AIDS: rural-urban considerations.

Low socioeconomic status (SES) influences the risk of acquiring human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and thus should be considered when analyzing HIV/AIDS surveillance data. Most surveillance systems do not collect individual level SES data but do collect residential ZIP code. We developed SES deprivation indices at the ZIP code tabulation area and assessed their predictive validity for AIDS incidence relative to individual neighborhood-level indicators in Florida using reliability analysis, factor analysis with principal component factorization, and structural equation modeling. For urban areas an index of poverty performed best, although the single factor poverty also performed well. For rural areas no index performed well, but the individual indicators of no access to a car and crowding performed well. In rural areas poverty was not associated with increased AIDS incidence. Users of HIV/AIDS surveillance data should consider urban and rural areas separately when assessing the impact of SES on AIDS incidence.

HIV prevention and transmission myths among heterosexually active adults in low-income areas of South Florida.

Misconceptions about HIV transmission and prevention may inhibit individuals' accurate assessment of their level of risk. We used venue-based sampling to conduct a cross-sectional study of heterosexually active adults (N = 1,221) within areas exhibiting high poverty and HIV/AIDS rates in Miami-Dade and Broward counties in 2007. Two logistic regression analyses identified correlates of holding inaccurate beliefs about HIV transmission and prevention. Belief in incorrect HIV prevention methods (27.2%) and modes of transmission (38.5%) was common. Having at least one incorrect prevention belief was associated with being Hispanic compared to white (non-Hispanic), being depressed, and not knowing one's HIV status. Having at least one incorrect transmission belief was associated with being younger, heavy alcohol use, being depressed, not having seen a physician in the past 12 months, and not knowing one's HIV status. Among low-income heterosexuals, HIV prevention and transmission myths are widespread. Debunking them could have HIV prevention value.

Utility of the National Death Index in ascertaining mortality in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome surveillance.

To assess the utility of the National Death Index (NDI) in improving the ascertainment of deaths among people diagnosed with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the authors determined the number and characteristics of additional deaths identified through NDI linkage not ascertained by using standard electronic linkage with Florida Vital Records and the Social Security Administration's Death Master File. Records of people diagnosed with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome between 1993 and 2007 in Florida were linked to the NDI. The demographic characteristics and reported human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission modes of people whose deaths were identified by using the NDI were compared with those whose deaths were ascertained by standard linkage methods. Of the 15,094 submitted records, 719 had confirmed matches, comprising 2.1% of known deaths (n = 34,504) within the cohort. Hispanics, males, people 40 years of age or older, and injection drug users were overrepresented among deaths ascertained only by the NDI. In-state deaths comprised 59.0% of newly identified deaths, and human immunodeficiency virus was less likely to be a cause of death among newly identified compared with previously identified deaths. The newly identified deaths were not previously ascertained principally because of slight differences in personal identifying information and could have been identified through improved linkages with Florida Vital Records.

HIV prevalence rates among men who have sex with men in the southern United States: population-based estimates by race/ethnicity.

States across the U.S. lack effective ways to quantify HIV prevalence rates among men who have sex with men (MSM). We estimated population-based HIV prevalence rates among MSM in the 17 southern states by race/ethnicity. Through 2007, estimated HIV prevalence rates per 100,000 MSM ranged from 2,607.6 among white (non-Hispanic) MSM in Maryland to 41,512.9 among black (non-Hispanic) MSM in the District of Columbia. Black MSM rates significantly exceeded Hispanic and white MSM rates in each state. Significant racial/ethnic disparities in rates persisted in a sensitivity analysis examining the possibility that minority MSM populations had been underestimated in each state. Compared with black, Hispanic, and white non-MSM males, respectively, rates at the regional level were 25.2 times higher for black MSM, 43.0 times higher for Hispanic MSM, and 106.0 times higher for white MSM. State-level analysis of racial/ethnic-specific MSM HIV prevalence rates can help guide resource allocation and assist advocacy.

Statewide estimation of racial/ethnic populations of men who have sex with men in the U.S.

OBJECTIVES: Men who have sex with men (MSM) bear the greatest burden of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in every state in the U.S., but their populations are poorly defined. We estimated and compared populations of MSM in 2007 by region, state, and race/ethnicity. METHODS: We averaged findings from two statistical models we had previously developed to estimate the total state-specific percentage and number of males who were MSM. The models were based, respectively, on state-specific rural/ suburban/urban characteristics and an index using state-specific household census data on same-sex male unmarried partners. A third model, based on racial/ethnic ratios from a nationally representative behavioral survey, partitioned these statewide numbers by race/ethnicity. RESULTS: Of an estimated 7.1 million MSM residing in the U.S. in 2007, 71.4% (5.1 million) were white, 15.9% (1.1 million) were Hispanic, 8.9% (635,000) were black, 2.7% (191,000) were Asian, 0.4% (26,000) were American Indian/Alaska Native, 0.1% (6,000) were Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander, and 0.6% (41,000) were of multiple/unknown race/ethnicity. The overall U.S. percentage of males who were MSM (6.4%) varied from 3.3% in South Dakota to 13.2% in the District of Columbia, which we treated as a state. Estimated numbers of MSM ranged from 9,612 in Wyoming to 1,104,805 in California. CONCLUSIONS: Plausible estimates of MSM populations by state and race/ethnicity can inform and guide HIV/AIDS surveillance, allocation of resources, and advocacy. They can help in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of HIV prevention programs and other services. Using MSM numbers as denominators, estimates of population-based MSM HIV incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates could help clarify national and state-level epidemic dynamics. Until corroborated by other modeling and/or empirical research, these estimates should be used with caution.

The Florida Mobile Health Adherence Project for People Living With HIV (FL-mAPP): Longitudinal Assessment of Feasibility, Acceptability, and Clinical Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: For people living with HIV (PLWH), antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence is crucial to attain better health outcomes. Although research has leveraged consumer health information technologies to enhance ART adherence, no study has evaluated feasibility and clinical outcomes associated with the usage of a commercially available, regularly updated mobile health (mHealth) app for improving ART adherence among PLWH. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the feasibility, acceptability, and clinical outcomes of Care4Today, an existing, free, biprogrammatic mHealth app for improving ART adherence among PLWH. METHODS: The Florida mHealth Application Adherence Project (FL-mAPP) was a 90-day longitudinal pilot study conducted in 3 public HIV clinics in Florida, United States. After obtaining informed consent, 132 participants completed a survey and then were given the option to try an existing mHealth app to help with ART adherence. Of these, 33.3% (44/132) declined, 31.1% (41/132) agreed but never used the app, and 35.6% (47/132) used the app. All were asked to complete follow-up surveys at 30 days and 90 days after enrollment. Usage data were used to assess feasibility. Clinical outcomes of self-reported ART adherence and chart-obtained HIV viral load and CD4+ T-cell counts were compared among those who used the platform (users) versus those who did not (nonusers). Participants and HIV care providers also provided responses to open-ended questions about what they liked and did not like about the app; comments were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Of 132 participants, 47 (35.6%) and 85 (64.4%) were categorized as users and nonusers, respectively. Among users, a Kaplan-Meier plot showed that 25 persons (53%) continued using the app after the 90-day follow-up. At 30-day follow-up, 13 (81.3%) of those who used the mHealth app reported ≥95% ART adherence, compared with 17 (58.6%) nonusers (P=.12). Overall, 39 (82%) users liked or somewhat liked using the platform. Participants' favorite features were medication reminders, ability to create custom reminders, and adherence reports. CONCLUSIONS: This longitudinal study found that a commercially available medication adherence mHealth app was a feasible and acceptable intervention to improve ART adherence among PLWH and engaged in clinical care across 3 public HIV clinics in the state of Florida. Overall, participants liked the Care4Today app and thought the medication reminders were their favorite feature. Generally, self-reports of ART adherence were better among users than nonusers, both at 30- and 90-day follow-ups. Further clinical research needs to address user fatigue for improving app usage.

Men who have sex with men: racial/ethnic disparities in estimated HIV/AIDS prevalence at the state and county level, Florida.

Population-based HIV/AIDS prevalence estimates among men who have sex with men (MSM) have been unavailable, but have implications for effective prevention efforts. Prevalent (living) Florida HIV/AIDS cases reported through 2006 (numerators) were stratified by race/ethnicity and HIV exposure category. Based on previous research, MSM populations were posited as 4-10% of all males aged > or =13 years in each subgroup (denominators). At the estimated lower and upper plausible bounds, respectively, HIV/AIDS prevalence per 100,000 MSM was significantly higher among black (8,292.6-20,731.4); Hispanic (5,599.5-13,998.7); and Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian or multi-racial (4,942.6-12,356.8) MSM than among white MSM (3,444.9-8,612.3). HIV/AIDS prevalence among all MSM was 13.8-36.9 times that among all other males. Across 19 high-morbidity counties, MSM HIV/AIDS prevalence was highest among those in the most populous counties and highest among blacks. This methodology, adaptable by other states, facilitates calculation of plausible MSM HIV/AIDS prevalence to guide HIV prevention/care community planners and MSM.

Estimating populations of men who have sex with men in the southern United States.

Population estimates of men who have sex with men (MSM) by state and race/ethnicity are lacking, hampering effective HIV epidemic monitoring and targeting of outreach and prevention efforts. We created three models to estimate the proportion and number of adult males who are MSM in 17 southern states. Model A used state-specific census data stratified by rural/suburban/urban area and national estimates of the percentage MSM in corresponding areas. Model B used a national estimate of the percentage MSM and state-specific household census data. Model C partitioned the statewide estimates by race/ethnicity. Statewide Models A and B estimates of the percentages MSM were strongly correlated (r = 0.74; r-squared = 0.55; p < 0.001) and had similar means (5.82% and 5.88%, respectively) and medians (5.5% and 5.2%, respectively). The estimated percentage MSM in the South was 6.0% (range 3.6-13.2%; median, 5.4%). The combined estimated number of MSM was 2.4 million, including 1,656,500 (69%) whites, 339,400 (14%) blacks, 368,800 (15%) Hispanics, 34,600 (1.4%) Asian/Pacific Islanders, 7,700 (0.3%) American Indians/Alaska Natives, and 11,000 (0.5%) others. The estimates showed considerable variability in state-specific racial/ethnic percentages MSM. MSM population estimates enable better assessment of community vulnerability, HIV/AIDS surveillance, and allocation of resources. Data availability and computational ease of our models suggest other states could similarly estimate their MSM populations.

Attitudes, Beliefs, and Willingness Toward the Use of mHealth Tools for Medication Adherence in the Florida mHealth Adherence Project for People Living With HIV (FL-mAPP): Pilot Questionnaire Study.

BACKGROUND: Antiretroviral (ART) adherence among people living with HIV (PLWH) continues to be a challenge despite advances in HIV prevention and treatment. Mobile health (mHealth) interventions are increasingly deployed as tools for ART adherence. However, little is known about the uptake and attitudes toward commercially available, biprogrammatic mobile apps (ie, designed for both smartphone and short message service [SMS] messaging) among demographically diverse PLWH. OBJECTIVES: The Florida mHealth Adherence Project for PLWH (FL-mAPP) is an innovative pilot study that aimed to determine the acceptability of a commercially available, biprogrammatic mHealth intervention platform to ensure medication adherence and gauge the current attitudes of PLWH toward current and future mHealth apps. METHODS: A predeveloped, commercially available, biprogrammatic mHealth platform (Care4Today Mobile Health Manager, Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, NJ) was deployed, with self-reported ART adherence recorded in the app and paper survey at both short term (30-day) or long-term (90-day) follow-ups. Consented participants completed baseline surveys on sociodemographics and attitudes, beliefs, and willingness toward the use of mHealth interventions for HIV care using a 5-point Likert scale. Chi-square tests and multivariate logistic regression analyses identified correlations with successful uptake of the mHealth platform. RESULTS: Among 132 PLWH, 66% (n=87) initially agreed to use the mHealth platform, of which 54% (n=47) successfully connected to the platform. Of the 87 agreeing to use the mHealth platform, we found an approximate 2:1 ratio of persons agreeing to try the smartphone app (n=59) versus the SMS text messages (n=28). Factors correlating with mHealth uptake were above high school level education (adjusted odds ratio 2.65; P=.05), confidence that a clinical staff member would assist with mHealth app use (adjusted odds ratio 2.92, P=.048), belief that PLWH would use such an mHealth app (adjusted odds ratio 2.89; P=.02), and ownership of a smartphone in contrast to a "flip-phone" model (adjusted odds ratio 2.80; P=.05). Of the sample, 70.2% (n=92) reported daily interest in receiving medication adherence reminders via an app (80.4% users versus 64.7% nonusers), although not significantly different among the user groups (P=.06). In addition, 34.8% (n=16) of mHealth users reported a theoretical "daily" interest and 68.2% (n=58) of non-mHealth users reported no interest in using an mHealth app for potentially tracking alcohol or drug intake (P=.002). CONCLUSIONS: This commercially available, biprogrammatic mHealth platform showed feasibility and efficacy for enhanced ART and medication adherence within public health clinics and successfully included older age groups. Successful use of the platform among demographically diverse PLWH is important for HIV implementation science and promising for uptake on a larger scale.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Failure to Initiate HIV Care: Role of HIV Testing Site, Individual Factors, and Neighborhood Factors, Florida, 2014-2015.

Delayed initiation of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care affects disease progression. To determine the role of HIV testing site and neighborhood- and individual-level factors in racial/ethnic disparities in initiation of care, we examined Florida population-based HIV/AIDS surveillance system records. We performed multilevel Poisson regression to calculate adjusted prevalence ratios (APR) for non-initiation of care by race/ethnicity adjusting for HIV testing site type and individual- and neighborhood-level characteristics. Of 8,913 people diagnosed with HIV during 2014-2015 in the final dataset, 18.3% were not in care within three months of diagnosis. The APR for non-initiation of care for non-Hispanic Blacks relative to non-Hispanic Whites was 1.57 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.38-1.78) and for those tested in plasma/donation centers relative to outpatient clinics was 2.45 (95% CI 2.19-2.74). Testing site and individual variables contribute to racial/ethnic disparities in non-initiation of HIV care. Linkage procedures, particularly at plasma/blood donation centers, warrant improvement.

Retention in HIV Care and Viral Suppression: Individual- and Neighborhood-Level Predictors of Racial/Ethnic Differences, Florida, 2015.

The objective of this study was to estimate racial/ethnic differences in retention in HIV care and viral suppression and to identify related individual and neighborhood determinants. Florida HIV surveillance records of cases aged ≥13 years diagnosed during the years 2000-2014 were analyzed. Retention in care was defined as evidence of ≥2 or more laboratory tests, receipts of prescription, or clinical visits at least 3 months apart during 2015. Viral load suppression was defined as a viral load of <200 copies/mL for the last test in 2015. Multi-level logistic regressions were used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AORs). Of 65,735 cases, 33.3% were not retained in care, and 40.1% were not virally suppressed. After controlling for individual and neighborhood factors, blacks were at increased odds of nonretention in HIV care [AOR 1.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.23-1.35] and nonviral suppression (AOR 1.55, 95% CI 1.48-1.63) compared with whites. Black and Latino males compared with their female counterparts had higher odds of nonretention and nonviral suppression. Compared with their US-born counterparts, foreign-born blacks and whites, but not Latinos, had higher odds of nonretention and nonviral suppression. Blacks and whites in urban compared with rural areas had higher odds of both outcomes. Disparities in retention in care and viral suppression persist and are not accounted for by differences in age, sex, transmission mode, AIDS diagnosis, neighborhood socioeconomic status, rural/urban residence, or neighborhood racial composition. Further, predictors of poor retention in care and viral suppression appear to differ by race/ethnicity.

Black-White and Country of Birth Disparities in Retention in HIV Care and Viral Suppression among Latinos with HIV in Florida, 2015.

The study's purpose was to identify HIV, Black-White race, and birth country disparities in retention in HIV care and HIV viral load (VL) suppression among Latinos, in 2015. Florida's surveillance data for Latinos diagnosed with HIV (2000-2014) were merged with American Community Survey data. Multi-level (random effects) models were used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for non-retention in care and non-viral load suppression. Blacks and Whites experienced similar odds of non-retention in care. Racial differences in VL suppression disappeared after controlling for neighborhood factors. Compared to U.S.-born Latinos, those born in Mexico (retention aOR 2.00, 95% CI 1.70-2.36; VL 1.85, 95% CI 1.57-2.17) and Central America (retention aOR 1.33, 95% CI 1.16-1.53; VL 1.28, 95% CI 1.12-2.47) were at an increased risk after controlling for individual and neighborhood factors. Among Central Americans, those born in Guatemala (retention aOR 2.39, 95% CI 1.80-3.18; VL 2.20, 95% CI 1.66-2.92) and Honduras (retention aOR 1.39, 95% CI 1.13-1.72; VL 1.42, 95% CI 1.16-1.74) experienced the largest disparities, when compared to U.S.-born Latinos. Disparities in care and treatment exist within the Latino population. Cultural and other factors, unique to Latino Black-White racial and birth country subgroups, should be further studied and considered for intervention.

Racial-ethnic differences in all-cause and HIV mortality, Florida, 2000-2011.

PURPOSE: We compared all-cause and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) mortality in a population-based, HIV-infected cohort. METHODS: Using records of people diagnosed with HIV during 2000-2009 from the Florida Enhanced HIV-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Reporting System, we conducted a proportional hazards analysis for all-cause mortality and a competing risk analysis for HIV mortality through 2011 controlling for individual-level factors, neighborhood poverty, and rural-urban status and stratifying by concurrent AIDS status (AIDS within 3 months of HIV diagnosis). RESULTS: Of 59,880 HIV-infected people, 32.2% had concurrent AIDS and 19.3% died. Adjusting for period of diagnosis, age group, sex, country of birth, HIV transmission mode, area-level poverty, and rural-urban status, non-Hispanic black (NHB) and Hispanic people had an elevated adjusted hazards ratio (aHR) for HIV mortality relative to non-Hispanic whites (NHB concurrent AIDS: aHR 1.34, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.23-1.47; NHB without concurrent AIDS: aHR 1.41, 95% CI 1.26-1.57; Hispanic concurrent AIDS: aHR 1.18, 95% CI 1.05-1.32; Hispanic without concurrent AIDS: aHR 1.18, 95% CI 1.03-1.36). CONCLUSIONS: Considering competing causes of death, NHB and Hispanic people had a higher risk of HIV mortality even among those without concurrent AIDS, indicating a need to identify and address barriers to HIV care in these populations.

Sex and Racial/Ethnic Differences in Premature Mortality Due to HIV: Florida, 2000-2009.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to characterize premature mortality among people diagnosed with HIV infection from 2000 to 2009 in Florida, by sex and race/ethnicity, to estimate differences in premature mortality that could be prevented by linkage to HIV care and treatment. METHODS: Florida surveillance data for HIV diagnoses (excluding concurrent AIDS diagnoses) were linked with vital records data to ascertain deaths through 2011. Years of potential life lost (YPLL) were obtained from the expected number of remaining years of life at a given age from the U.S. sex-specific period life tables. RESULTS: Among 41,565 people diagnosed with HIV infection during the study period, 5,249 died, and 2,563 (48.8%) deaths were due to HIV/AIDS. Age-standardized YPLL (aYPLL) due to HIV/AIDS per 1,000 person-years was significantly higher for females than males (372.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 349.8, 396.2 vs. 295.2, 95% CI 278.4, 312.5); for non-Hispanic black (NHB) females than non-Hispanic white (NHW) and Hispanic females (388.2, 95% CI 360.7, 416.9; 294.3, 95% CI 239.8, 354.9; and 295.0, 95% CI 242.9, 352.5, respectively); and for NHB males compared with NHW and Hispanic males (378.7, 95% CI 353.7, 404.7; 210.6, 95% CI 174.3, 250.8; and 240.9, 95% CI 204.8, 280.2, respectively). In multilevel modeling controlling for individual factors, NHB race was associated with YPLL due to HIV/AIDS for women (p=0.04) and men (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Among people diagnosed with HIV infection, females and NHB people had a disproportionately high premature mortality from HIV/AIDS, suggesting the need for enhanced efforts to improve linkage to and retention in care and medication adherence for these groups.

Influence of residential segregation on survival after AIDS diagnosis among non-Hispanic blacks.

PURPOSE: Non-Hispanic blacks (NHBs) are disproportionately affected by the AIDS epidemic. With the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), survival after AIDS diagnosis has increased dramatically, yet survival among NHBs is shorter compared with non-Hispanic whites. Racial residential segregation may be an important factor influencing observed racial disparities in survival. METHODS: We linked data on 30,813 NHBs from the Florida Department of Health HIV/AIDS Reporting system (1993-2004) with death records and applied segregation indices and poverty levels to the data. Weighted Cox models were used to examine the association between segregation measured on five dimensions and survival, controlling for demographic factors, clinical factors, and area-level poverty. Analyses were stratified by pre-HAART (1993-1995), early HAART (1996-1998), and late-HAART (1999-2004) eras. RESULTS: In the late-HAART era, adjusting for area-level poverty, segregation remained a significant predictor of survival on two dimensions: Concentration (hazard ratio, 1.32; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-1.56) and centralization (hazard ratio, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-1.84). Area-level poverty was an independent predictor of survival. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that certain dimensions of segregation and poverty are associated with survival after AIDS diagnosis.

Late HIV diagnosis: Differences by rural/urban residence, Florida, 2007-2011.

The purpose of this retrospective cohort study was to identify individual-level demographic and community-level socioeconomic and health care resource factors associated with late diagnosis of HIV in rural and urban areas of Florida. Multilevel modeling was conducted with linked 2007-2011 Florida HIV surveillance, American Community Survey, Area Health Resource File, and state counseling and testing data. Late diagnosis (defined as AIDS diagnosis within 3 months of HIV diagnosis) was more common in rural than urban areas (35.8% vs. 27.4%) (p<0.0001). This difference persisted after controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, HIV transmission mode, country of birth, and diagnosis year (adjusted OR 1.39; 95% CI 1.17-1.66). In rural areas, older age and male sex were associated with late HIV diagnosis; zip code-level socioeconomic and county level health care resource variables were not associated with late diagnosis in rural areas. In urban areas only, Hispanic and non-Hispanic black race/ethnicity, foreign birth, and heterosexual mode of transmission were additionally associated with late HIV diagnosis. These findings suggest that, in rural areas, enhanced efforts are needed to target older individuals and men in screening programs and that studies of psychosocial and structural barriers to HIV testing in rural and urban areas be pursued.