Long COVID: mechanisms, risk factors and recovery.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the topic of this review? The emerging condition of long COVID, its epidemiology, pathophysiological impacts on patients of different backgrounds, physiological mechanisms emerging as explanations of the condition, and treatment strategies being trialled. The review leads from a Physiological Society online conference on this topic. What advances does it highlight? Progress in understanding the pathophysiology and cellular mechanisms underlying Long COVID and potential therapeutic and management strategies. ABSTRACT: Long COVID, the prolonged illness and fatigue suffered by a small proportion of those infected with SARS-CoV-2, is placing an increasing burden on individuals and society. A Physiological Society virtual meeting in February 2022 brought clinicians and researchers together to discuss the current understanding of long COVID mechanisms, risk factors and recovery. This review highlights the themes arising from that meeting. It considers the nature of long COVID, exploring its links with other post-viral illnesses such as myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome, and highlights how long COVID research can help us better support those suffering from all post-viral syndromes. Long COVID research started particularly swiftly in populations routinely monitoring their physical performance - namely the military and elite athletes. The review highlights how the high degree of diagnosis, intervention and monitoring of success in these active populations can suggest management strategies for the wider population. We then consider how a key component of performance monitoring in active populations, cardiopulmonary exercise training, has revealed long COVID-related changes in physiology - including alterations in peripheral muscle function, ventilatory inefficiency and autonomic dysfunction. The nature and impact of dysautonomia are further discussed in relation to postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome, fatigue and treatment strategies that aim to combat sympathetic overactivation by stimulating the vagus nerve. We then interrogate the mechanisms that underlie long COVID symptoms, with a focus on impaired oxygen delivery due to micro-clotting and disruption of cellular energy metabolism, before considering treatment strategies that indirectly or directly tackle these mechanisms. These include remote inspiratory muscle training and integrated care pathways that combine rehabilitation and drug interventions with research into long COVID healthcare access across different populations. Overall, this review showcases how physiological research reveals the changes that occur in long COVID and how different therapeutic strategies are being developed and tested to combat this condition.

Ablation versus anti-arrhythmic therapy for reducing all hospital episodes from recurrent atrial fibrillation: a prospective, randomized, multi-centre, open label trial.

AIMS: There is rising healthcare utilization related to the increasing incidence and prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) worldwide. Simplifying therapy and reducing hospital episodes would be a valuable development. The efficacy of a streamlined AF ablation approach was compared to drug therapy and a conventional catheter ablation technique for symptom control in paroxysmal AF. METHODS AND RESULTS: We recruited 321 patients with symptomatic paroxysmal AF to a prospective randomized, multi-centre, open label trial at 13 UK hospitals. Patients were randomized 1:1:1 to cryo-balloon ablation without electrical mapping with patients discharged same day [Ablation Versus Anti-arrhythmic Therapy for Reducing All Hospital Episodes from Recurrent (AVATAR) protocol]; optimization of drug therapy; or cryo-balloon ablation with confirmation of pulmonary vein isolation and overnight hospitalization. The primary endpoint was time to any hospital episode related to treatment for atrial arrhythmia. Secondary endpoints included complications of treatment and quality-of-life measures. The hazard ratio (HR) for a primary endpoint event occurring when comparing AVATAR protocol arm to drug therapy was 0.156 (95% CI, 0.097-0.250; P < 0.0001 by Cox regression). Twenty-three patients (21%) recorded an endpoint event in the AVATAR arm compared to 76 patients (74%) within the drug therapy arm. Comparing AVATAR and conventional ablation arms resulted in a non-significant HR of 1.173 (95% CI, 0.639-2.154; P = 0.61 by Cox regression) with 23 patients (21%) and 19 patients (18%), respectively, recording primary endpoint events (P = 0.61 by log-rank test). CONCLUSION: The AVATAR protocol was superior to drug therapy for avoiding hospital episodes related to AF treatment, but conventional cryoablation was not superior to the AVATAR protocol. This could have wide-ranging implications on how demand for AF symptom control is met. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials Registration: NCT02459574.

Septal scar as a barrier to left bundle branch area pacing.

BACKGROUND: The use of left bundle branch area pacing (LBBAP) for bradycardia pacing and cardiac resynchronization is increasing, but implants are not always successful. We prospectively studied consecutive patients to determine whether septal scar contributes to implant failure. METHODS: Patients scheduled for bradycardia pacing or cardiac resynchronization therapy were prospectively enrolled. Recruited patients underwent preprocedural scar assessment by cardiac MRI with late gadolinium enhancement imaging. LBBAP was attempted using a lumenless lead (Medtronic 3830) via a transeptal approach. RESULTS: Thirty-five patients were recruited: 29 male, mean age 68 years, 10 ischemic, and 16 non-ischemic cardiomyopathy. Pacing indication was bradycardia in 26% and cardiac resynchronization in 74%. The lead was successfully deployed to the left ventricular septum in 30/35 (86%) and unsuccessful in the remaining 5/35 (14%). Septal late gadolinium enhancement was significantly less extensive in patients where left septal lead deployment was successful, compared those where it was unsuccessful (median 8%, IQR 2%-18% vs. median 54%, IQR 53%-57%, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of septal scar appears to make it more challenging to deploy a lead to the left ventricular septum via the transeptal route. Additional implant tools or alternative approaches may be required in patients with extensive septal scar.

New horizons in the ageing autonomic nervous system: orthostatic hypotension and supine hypertension.

Blood pressure regulation is an automatic, moment-by-moment buffering of the blood pressure in response to physiological changes such as orthostasis, exercise and haemorrhage. This finely orchestrated reflex is called the baroreflex. It is a regulated arc of afferent, central and efferent arms. Multiple physiological changes occur with ageing that can disrupt this reflex, making blood pressure regulation less effective. In addition, multiple changes can occur with ageing-related diseases such as neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis, deconditioning and polypharmacy. These changes commonly result in orthostatic hypotension, hypertension or both, and are consistently associated with multiple adverse outcomes. In this article, we discuss the healthy baroreflex, and physiological and pathophysiological reasons for impaired baroreflex function in older people. We discuss why the common clinical manifestations of orthostatic hypotension and concomitant supine hypertension occur, and strategies for balancing these conflicting priorities. Finally, we discuss strategies for treating them, outlining our practice alongside consensus and expert guidance.

Tilt testing remains a valuable asset.

Head-up tilt test (TT) has been used for >50 years to study heart rate/blood pressure adaptation to positional changes, to model responses to haemorrhage, to assess orthostatic hypotension, and to evaluate haemodynamic and neuroendocrine responses in congestive heart failure, autonomic dysfunction, and hypertension. During these studies, some subjects experienced syncope due to vasovagal reflex. As a result, tilt testing was incorporated into clinical assessment of syncope when the origin was unknown. Subsequently, clinical experience supports the diagnostic value of TT. This is highlighted in evidence-based professional practice guidelines, which provide advice for TT methodology and interpretation, while concurrently identifying its limitations. Thus, TT remains a valuable clinical asset, one that has added importantly to the appreciation of pathophysiology of syncope/collapse and, thereby, has improved care of syncopal patients.

Non-invasive detection of exercise-induced cardiac conduction abnormalities in sudden cardiac death survivors in the inherited cardiac conditions.

AIMS: Rate adaptation of the action potential ensures spatial heterogeneities in conduction across the myocardium are minimized at different heart rates providing a protective mechanism against ventricular fibrillation (VF) and sudden cardiac death (SCD), which can be quantified by the ventricular conduction stability (V-CoS) test previously described. We tested the hypothesis that patients with a history of aborted SCD due to an underlying channelopathy or cardiomyopathy have a reduced capacity to maintain uniform activation following exercise. METHODS AND RESULTS: Sixty individuals, with (n = 28) and without (n = 32) previous aborted-SCD event underwent electro-cardiographic imaging recordings following exercise treadmill test. These included 25 Brugada syndrome, 13 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 12 idiopathic VF, and 10 healthy controls. Data were inputted into the V-CoS programme to calculate a V-CoS score that indicate the percentage of ventricle that showed no significant change in ventricular activation, with a lower score indicating the development of greater conduction heterogeneity. The SCD group, compared to those without, had a lower median (interquartile range) V-CoS score at peak exertion [92.8% (89.8-96.3%) vs. 97.3% (94.9-99.1%); P < 0.01] and 2 min into recovery [95.2% (91.1-97.2%) vs. 98.9% (96.9-99.5%); P < 0.01]. No significant difference was observable later into recovery at 5 or 10 min. Using the lowest median V-CoS scores obtained during the entire recovery period post-exertion, SCD survivors had a significantly lower score than those without for each of the different underlying aetiologies. CONCLUSION: Data from this pilot study demonstrate the potential use of this technique in risk stratification for the inherited cardiac conditions.

Evaluation of a new algorithm for tracking activation during atrial fibrillation using multipolar catheters in humans.

BACKGROUND: Conventional mapping techniques during atrial fibrillation (AF) are difficult to apply because of cycle length irregularity. Mapping studies are usually restricted to short durations of AF in limited regions because of the laborious manual annotation of local activation time (LAT). The purpose of this study was to test an automated algorithm to map activation during AF, with comparable accuracy to manual annotation. METHODS: Left atrial (LA) mapping was performed using a 20-pole double loop catheter (AFocusII) in 30-second data segments from 16 patients. The new algorithm (RETRO-Mapping) was designed to detect wavefront propagation between electrodes, and display activating wavefronts on a two-dimensional representation of the catheter. Activation patterns were validated against their bipolar electrograms and with isochronal maps. The mapping protocol was approved by the research ethics committee (13/LO1169 and 14/LO1367). RESULTS: During AF, uniform wavefront activation direction (mean ± SD, degrees) from manually constructed isochronal maps was comparable to RETRO-Propagation Map (RETRO-PM) and RETRO-Automated Direction (RETRO-AD): 1 ± 6.9 for RETRO-PM; and 2 ± 6.6 for RETRO-AD. There was no significant difference in activation direction assigned to 1373 uniform wavefronts during AF when comparing RETRO-PM with RETRO-AD (Bland-Altman mean difference: -0.1 degrees; limits of agreement: -8.0 to 8.3; 95% CI -0.4 to 0.2; (r = 0.01) R2 = < 0.005; P = .77). CONCLUSION: We have developed and validated a new technique to map activation during AF. This technique shows comparable accuracy to that of conventional isochronal mapping with careful manual adjustment of LAT.

Ventricular conduction stability test: a method to identify and quantify changes in whole heart activation patterns during physiological stress.

AIMS: Abnormal rate adaptation of the action potential is proarrhythmic but is difficult to measure with current electro-anatomical mapping techniques. We developed a method to rapidly quantify spatial discordance in whole heart activation in response to rate cycle length changes. We test the hypothesis that patients with underlying channelopathies or history of aborted sudden cardiac death (SCD) have a reduced capacity to maintain uniform activation following exercise. METHODS AND RESULTS: Electrocardiographical imaging (ECGI) reconstructs >1200 electrograms (EGMs) over the ventricles from a single beat, providing epicardial whole heart activation maps. Thirty-one individuals [11 SCD survivors; 10 Brugada syndrome (BrS) without SCD; and 10 controls] with structurally normal hearts underwent ECGI vest recordings following exercise treadmill. For each patient, we calculated the relative change in EGM local activation times (LATs) between a baseline and post-exertion phase using custom written software. A ventricular conduction stability (V-CoS) score calculated to indicate the percentage of ventricle that showed no significant change in relative LAT (<10 ms). A lower score reflected greater conduction heterogeneity. Mean variability (standard deviation) of V-CoS score over 10 consecutive beats was small (0.9 ± 0.5%), with good inter-operator reproducibility of V-CoS scores. Sudden cardiac death survivors, compared to BrS and controls, had the lowest V-CoS scores post-exertion (P = 0.011) but were no different at baseline (P = 0.50). CONCLUSION: We present a method to rapidly quantify changes in global activation which provides a measure of conduction heterogeneity and proof of concept by demonstrating SCD survivors have a reduced capacity to maintain uniform activation following exercise.

Prevalence of spontaneous type I ECG pattern, syncope, and other risk markers in sudden cardiac arrest survivors with Brugada syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: A spontaneous type I electrocardiogram (ECG) pattern and/or unheralded syncope are conventionally used as risk markers for primary prevention of sudden cardiac arrest/death (SCA/SCD) in Brugada syndrome (BrS). In this study, we determine the prevalence of conventional and newer markers of risk in those with and without previous aborted SCA events. METHODS: All patients with BrS were identified at our institute. History of symptoms was obtained from medical tests or from interviews. Other markers of risk were also obtained, such as presence of (1) spontaneous type I pattern, (2) fractionated QRS (fQRS), (3) early repolarization (ER) pattern, (4) late potentials on signal-averaged ECG (SAECG), and (5) response to programmed electrical stimulation. RESULTS: In 133 patients with Bars, 10 (7%) patients (mean age = 39 ± 11 years; nine males) were identified with a previous ventricular fibrillation/ventricular tachycardia episode (n = 8) or requiring cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (n = 2). None of these patients had a prior history of syncope before their SCA event. Only two (20%) patients reported a history of palpitations or dizziness. None had apneic breathing and three (30%) patients had a family history of SCA. From their ECGs, a spontaneous pattern was only found in one (10%) of these patients. Further, 10% of patients had fQRS, 17% had late potentials on SAECG, 20% had deep S waves in lead I, and 10% had an ER pattern in the peripheral leads. No significant differences were observed in the non-SCA group. CONCLUSION: The majority of BrS patients with previous aborted SCA events did not have a spontaneous type I and/or prior history of syncope. Conventional and newer markers of risk appear to only have limited ability to predict SCA.

Isthmus sites identified by Ripple Mapping are usually anatomically stable: A novel method to guide atrial substrate ablation?

BACKGROUND: Postablation reentrant ATs depend upon conducting isthmuses bordered by scar. Bipolar voltage maps highlight scar as sites of low voltage, but the voltage amplitude of an electrogram depends upon the myocardial activation sequence. Furthermore, a voltage threshold that defines atrial scar is unknown. We used Ripple Mapping (RM) to test whether these isthmuses were anatomically fixed between different activation vectors and atrial rates. METHODS: We studied post-AF ablation ATs where >1 rhythm was mapped. Multipolar catheters were used with CARTO Confidense for high-density mapping. RM visualized the pattern of activation, and the voltage threshold below which no activation was seen. Isthmuses were characterized at this threshold between maps for each patient. RESULTS: Ten patients were studied (Map 1 was AT1; Map 2: sinus 1/10, LA paced 2/10, AT2 with reverse CS activation 3/10; AT2 CL difference 50 ± 30 ms). Point density was similar between maps (Map 1: 2,589 ± 1,330; Map 2: 2,214 ± 1,384; P  =  0.31). RM activation threshold was 0.16 ± 0.08 mV. Thirty-one isthmuses were identified in Map 1 (median 3 per map; width 27 ± 15 mm; 7 anterior; 6 roof; 8 mitral; 9 septal; 1 posterior). Importantly, 7 of 31 (23%) isthmuses were unexpectedly identified within regions without prior ablation. AT1 was treated following ablation of 11/31 (35%) isthmuses. Of the remaining 20 isthmuses, 14 of 16 isthmuses (88%) were consistent between the two maps (four were inadequately mapped). Wavefront collision caused variation in low voltage distribution in 2 of 16 (12%). CONCLUSIONS: The distribution of isthmuses and nonconducting tissue within the ablated left atrium, as defined by RM, appear concordant between rhythms. This could guide a substrate ablative approach.

Repolarization abnormalities unmasked with exercise in sudden cardiac death survivors with structurally normal hearts.

BACKGROUND: Models of cardiac arrhythmogenesis predict that nonuniformity in repolarization and/or depolarization promotes ventricular fibrillation and is modulated by autonomic tone, but this is difficult to evaluate in patients. We hypothesize that such spatial heterogeneities would be detected by noninvasive ECG imaging (ECGi) in sudden cardiac death (SCD) survivors with structurally normal hearts under physiological stress. METHODS: ECGi was applied to 11 SCD survivors, 10 low-risk Brugada syndrome patients (BrS), and 10 controls undergoing exercise treadmill testing. ECGi provides whole heart activation maps and >1,200 unipolar electrograms over the ventricular surface from which global dispersion of activation recovery interval (ARI) and regional delay in conduction were determined. These were used as surrogates for spatial heterogeneities in repolarization and depolarization. Surface ECG markers of dispersion (QT and Tpeak-end intervals) were also calculated for all patients for comparison. RESULTS: Following exertion, the SCD group demonstrated the largest increase in ARI dispersion compared to BrS and control groups (13 ± 8 ms vs. 4 ± 7 ms vs. 4 ± 5 ms; P = 0.009), with baseline dispersion being similar in all groups. In comparison, surface ECG markers of dispersion of repolarization were unable to discriminate between the groups at baseline or following exertion. Spatial heterogeneities in conduction were also present following exercise but were not significantly different between SCD survivors and the other groups. CONCLUSION: Increased dispersion of repolarization is apparent during physiological stress in SCD survivors and is detectable with ECGi but not with standard ECG parameters. The electrophysiological substrate revealed by ECGi could be the basis of alternative risk-stratification techniques.

Outcomes of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation ablation studies are affected more by study design and patient mix than ablation technique.

OBJECTIVE: We tested whether ablation methodology and study design can explain the varying outcomes in terms of atrial fibrillation (AF)-free survival at 1 year. BACKGROUND: There have been numerous paroxysmal AF ablation trials, which are heterogeneous in their use of different ablation techniques and study design. A useful approach to understanding how these factors influence outcome is to dismantle the trials into individual arms and reconstitute them as a large meta-regression. METHODS: Data were collected from 66 studies (6941 patients). With freedom from AF as the dependent variable, we performed meta-regression using the individual study arm as the unit. RESULTS: Success rates did not change regardless of the technique used to produce pulmonary vein isolation (PVI). Neither was adjunctive lesion sets associated with any improvement in outcome. Studies that included more males and fewer hypertensive patients were found more likely to report better outcomes. The electrocardiography method selected to assess outcome also plays an important role. Outcomes were worse in studies that used regular telemonitoring (by 23%; P < 0.001) or in patients who had implantable loop recorders (by 21%; P = 0.006), rather than those with the less thorough periodic Holter monitoring. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes of AF ablation studies involving PVI are not affected by the technologies used to produce PVI. Neither do adjunctive lesion sets change the outcome. Achieving high success rates in these studies appears to be dependent more on patient mix and on the thoroughness of AF detection protocols. These should be carefully considered when quoting the success rates of AF ablation procedures that are derived from such studies.

A novel approach to mapping the atrial ganglionated plexus network by generating a distribution probability atlas.

INTRODUCTION: The ganglionated plexuses (GPs) of the intrinsic cardiac autonomic system are implicated in arrhythmogenesis. GP localization by stimulation of the epicardial fat pads to produce atrioventricular dissociating (AVD) effects is well described. We determined the anatomical distribution of the left atrial GPs that influence atrioventricular (AV) dissociation. METHODS AND RESULTS: High frequency stimulation was delivered through a Smart-Touch catheter in the left atrium of patients undergoing atrial fibrillation (AF) ablation. Three dimensional locations of points tested throughout the entire chamber were recorded on the CARTO™ system. Impact on the AV conduction was categorized as ventricular asystole, bradycardia, or no effect. CARTO maps were exported, registered, and transformed onto a reference left atrial geometry using a custom software, enabling data from multiple patients to be overlaid. In 28 patients, 2108 locations were tested and 283 sites (13%) demonstrated (AVD-GP) effects. There were 10 AVD-GPs (interquartile range, 11.5) per patient. Eighty percent (226) produced asystole and 20% (57) showed bradycardia. The distribution of the two groups was very similar. Highest probability of AVD-GPs (>20%) was identified in: inferoseptal portion (41%) and right inferior pulmonary vein base (30%) of the posterior wall, right superior pulmonary vein antrum (31%). CONCLUSION: It is feasible to map the entire left atrium for AVD-GPs before AF ablation. Aggregated data from multiple patients, producing a distribution probability atlas of AVD-GPs, identified three regions with a higher likelihood for finding AVD-GPs and these matched the histological descriptions. This approach could be used to better characterize the autonomic network.

The sawtooth EKG pattern of typical atrial flutter is not related to slow conduction velocity at the cavotricuspid isthmus.

INTRODUCTION: We hypothesized that very high-density mapping of typical atrial flutter (AFL) would facilitate a more complete understanding of its circuit. Such very high-density mapping was performed with the RhythmiaTM (Boston Scientific) mapping system using its 64 electrode basket catheter. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data were acquired from 13 patients in AFL. Functional anatomy of the right atrium (RA) was readily identified during mapping including the Crista Terminalis and Eustachian ridge. The leading edge of the activation wavefront was identified without interruption and its conduction velocity (CV) was calculated. CV was not different at the cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI) compared to the remainder of the RA (1.02 vs. 1.03 m/s, P = 0.93). The sawtooth pattern of the surface electrocardiogram (EKG) flutter waves was compared to the position of the dominant wavefront. The downslope of the surface EKG flutter waves represented on average 73% ± 9% of the total flutter cycle length. During the downslope, the activation wavefront traveled significantly further than during the upslope (182 ± 21 milliseconds vs. 68 ± 29 milliseconds, P < 0.0001) with no change in CV between the two phases (0.88 vs. 0.91 m/s, P = 0.79). CONCLUSION: CV at the CTI is not slower than other RA regions during typical AFL. The gradual downslope of the sawtooth EKG  is not due to slow conduction at the CTI suggesting that success of ablation at this site relates to anatomical properties rather than the presence of a "slow isthmus."

Diagnostic role of head-up tilt test in patients with cough syncope.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to describe the head-up tilt (HUT) test and carotid sinus massage (CSM) responses, and the occurrence of syncope with coughing during HUT in a large cohort of patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 5133 HUT were retrospectively analysed to identify patients with cough syncope. Head-up tilt followed by CSM were performed. Patients were made to cough on two separate occasions in an attempt to reproduce typical clinical symptoms on HUT. Patients with cough syncope were compared with 29 age-matched control patients with syncope unrelated to coughing. A total of 29 patients (26 male, age 49 ± 14 years) with cough syncope were identified. Coughing during HUT reproduced typical prodromal symptoms of syncope in 16 (55%) patients and complete loss of consciousness in 2 (7%) patients, with a mean systolic blood pressure reduction of 45 ± 26 mmHg, and a mean increase in heart rate of 13 ± 8 b.p.m. No syncope or symptoms after coughing were observed in the control group. The HUT result was positive in 13 (48%) patients with the majority of positive HUT responses being vasodepressor (70% of positive HUT). Carotid sinus massage was performed in 18 patients being positive with a vasodepressor response causing mild pre-syncopal symptoms in only 1 patient. CONCLUSION: Syncope during coughing is a result of hypotension, rather than bradycardia. Coughing during HUT is a useful test in patients suspected to have cough syncope but in whom the history is not conclusive.

Focal Arrhythmia Ablation Determined by High-Resolution Noninvasive Maps: Multicenter Feasibility Study.

INTRODUCTION: A noninvasive 3D mapping technique (ECVUE™, CardioInsight Inc., Cleveland) maps the origin and mechanisms of various arrhythmias without catheterizing the heart. METHODS: Thirty-three patients (3 centers, mean 45.0 ± 14.6 years,) with symptomatic premature ventricular complexes (24 PVCs), focal atrial tachycardias (2 ATs), and manifest accessory pathways (7 WPW syndromes) were prospectively explored using 3D, noninvasive bedside electrocardiomapping. The location of origin of the focal arrhythmia was first determined using noninvasive mapping. Subsequently, a stimulus artifact was delivered at this site to confirm and evaluate the precise location of the mapped focal origin. The procedural parameters and clinical efficacy were studied. RESULTS: Ablation was successful in 32/33 (97%) patients (PVCs: 13 right, 10 left, 1 septal; WPW: 3 left, 3 right; ATs: 2 left) without complications. The time from catheterization to permanent arrhythmia elimination/termination, RF duration, skin-to-skin procedural duration, and fluoroscopic exposure were median 16, 3.98, 71, and 11.9 minutes (for n = 29), respectively. At mean 24.7 ± 3.7 months of follow-up, 31 patients remain arrhythmia-free after a single procedure. One patient (right WPW syndrome) required repeat ablation 1 month later. One patient had recurrence of PVCs and is now deceased. The cumulative radiation (CT scan and fluoroscopy) exposure was median 7.57 mSv. CONCLUSION: ECVUE(TM) is a noninvasive tool allowing rapid preprocedural localization of focal arrhythmia and enables the electrophysiologist with highly specific information to direct RF delivery at the source of the arrhythmia with minimal intracardiac mapping.

Ivabradine in treatment of sinus tachycardia mediated vasovagal syncope.

AIMS: Ivabradine, an I(f) current blocker, has shown promising results in treatment of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS). There is a subgroup of vasovagal syncope (VVS) patients, who demonstrate sinus tachycardia before collapse on tilt testing mimicking some features of POTS. These patients may also respond to ivabradine therapy. University Hospital Syncope Clinic where ivabradine was prescribed in a prospective fashion on humanitarian grounds between October 2008 and December 2011. METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-five patients of mean age 33±years presenting syncope in all and palpitation in 23, duration 9±years underwent tilt testing with reproduction of usual symptoms including tachycardia preceding collapse. Ivabradine was prescribed in doses of 5-20 mg/day, mean 10.7 mg, as once or twice daily medication. The response to treatment was classified as deterioration in none, no change in 5, improvement in 10, and symptoms abolished in 8 patients. Side effects were minimal; one patient required discontinuation. CONCLUSION: In this pilot study of ivabradine, in patients with VVS, of patients who demonstrated sinus tachycardia before collapse on tilt, 72% reported a marked benefit or complete resolution of symptoms. The drug was well tolerated. A randomized controlled trial against placebo is justified.

Percutaneous Neuromodulation for Atrial Fibrillation.

Percutaneous neuromodulation is emerging as a promising therapeutic approach for atrial fibrillation (AF). This article explores techniques such as ganglionated plexi (GP) ablation, and vagus nerve stimulation, pinpointing their potential in modulating AF triggers and maintenance. Noninvasive methods, such as transcutaneous low-level tragus stimulation, offer innovative treatment pathways, with early trials indicating a significant reduction in AF burden. GP ablation may address autonomic triggers, and the potential for GP ablation in neuromodulation is discussed. The article stresses the necessity for more rigorous clinical trials to validate the safety, reproducibility, and efficacy of these neuromodulation techniques in AF treatment.

Machine learning-derived cycle length variability metrics predict spontaneously terminating ventricular tachycardia in implantable cardioverter defibrillator recipients.

Aims: Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) therapies have been associated with increased mortality and should be minimized when safe to do so. We hypothesized that machine learning-derived ventricular tachycardia (VT) cycle length (CL) variability metrics could be used to discriminate between sustained and spontaneously terminating VT. Methods and results: In this single-centre retrospective study, we analysed data from 69 VT episodes stored on ICDs from 27 patients (36 spontaneously terminating VT, 33 sustained VT). Several VT CL parameters including heart rate variability metrics were calculated. Additionally, a first order auto-regression model was fitted using the first 10 CLs. Using features derived from the first 10 CLs, a random forest classifier was used to predict VT termination. Sustained VT episodes had more stable CLs. Using data from the first 10 CLs only, there was greater CL variability in the spontaneously terminating episodes (mean of standard deviation of first 10 CLs: 20.1 ± 8.9 vs. 11.5 ± 7.8 ms, P < 0.0001). The auto-regression coefficient was significantly greater in spontaneously terminating episodes (mean auto-regression coefficient 0.39 ± 0.32 vs. 0.14 ± 0.39, P < 0.005). A random forest classifier with six features yielded an accuracy of 0.77 (95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.87) for prediction of VT termination. Conclusion: Ventricular tachycardia CL variability and instability are associated with spontaneously terminating VT and can be used to predict spontaneous VT termination. Given the harmful effects of unnecessary ICD shocks, this machine learning model could be incorporated into ICD algorithms to defer therapies for episodes of VT that are likely to self-terminate.