Seed color patterns in domesticated common bean are regulated by MYB-bHLH-WD40 transcription factors and temperature.

Seed colors and color patterns are critical for the survival of wild plants and the consumer appeal of crops. In common bean, a major global staple, these patterns are also essential in determining market classes, yet the genetic and environmental control of many pigmentation patterns remains unresolved. In this study, we genetically mapped variation for several important seed pattern loci, including T, Bip, phbw, and Z, which co-segregated with candidate genes PvTTG1, PvMYC1, PvTT8, and PvTT2, respectively. Proteins encoded by these genes are predicted to work together in MYB-bHLH-WD40 (MBW) complexes, propagating flavonoid biosynthesis across the seed coat as observed in Arabidopsis. Whole-genome sequencing of 37 accessions identified mutations, including seven unique parallel mutations in T (PvTTG1) and non-synonymous SNPs in highly conserved residues in bipana (PvMYC1) and z (PvTT2). A 612 bp intron deletion in phbw (PvTT8) eliminated motifs conserved since the Papilionoideae origin and corresponded to a 20-fold reduction in transcript abundance. In multi-location field trials of seven varieties with partial seed coat pigmentation patterning, the pigmented seed coat area correlated positively with ambient temperature, with up to 11-fold increases in the pigmented area from the coolest to the warmest environments. In controlled growth chamber conditions, an increase of 4°C was sufficient to cause pigmentation on an average additional 21% of the seed coat area. Our results shed light on key steps of flavonoid biosynthesis in common bean. They will inform breeding efforts for seed coat color/patterning to improve consumer appeal in this nutritious staple crop.

Pod shattering in grain legumes: emerging genetic and environment-related patterns.

A reduction in pod shattering is one of the main components of grain legume domestication. Despite this, many domesticated legumes suffer serious yield losses due to shattering, particularly under arid conditions. Mutations related to pod shattering modify the twisting force of pod walls or the structural strength of the dehiscence zone in pod sutures. At a molecular level, a growing body of evidence indicates that these changes are controlled by a relatively small number of key genes that have been selected in parallel across grain legume species, supporting partial molecular convergence. Legume homologs of Arabidopsis thaliana silique shattering genes play only minor roles in legume pod shattering. Most domesticated grain legume species contain multiple shattering-resistance genes, with mutants of each gene typically showing only partial shattering resistance. Hence, crosses between varieties with different genes lead to transgressive segregation of shattering alleles, producing plants with either enhanced shattering resistance or atavistic susceptibility to the trait. The frequency of these resistance pod-shattering alleles is often positively correlated with environmental aridity. The continued development of pod-shattering-related functional information will be vital for breeding crops that are suited to the increasingly arid conditions expected in the coming decades.

A receptor-like protein mediates plant immune responses to herbivore-associated molecular patterns.

Herbivory is fundamental to the regulation of both global food webs and the extent of agricultural crop losses. Induced plant responses to herbivores promote resistance and often involve the perception of specific herbivore-associated molecular patterns (HAMPs); however, precisely defined receptors and elicitors associated with herbivore recognition remain elusive. Here, we show that a receptor confers signaling and defense outputs in response to a defined HAMP common in caterpillar oral secretions (OS). Staple food crops, including cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), specifically respond to OS via recognition of proteolytic fragments of chloroplastic ATP synthase, termed inceptins. Using forward-genetic mapping of inceptin-induced plant responses, we identified a corresponding leucine-rich repeat receptor, termed INR, specific to select legume species and sufficient to confer inceptin-induced responses and enhanced defense against armyworms (Spodoptera exigua) in tobacco. Our results support the role of plant immune receptors in the perception of chewing herbivores and defense.

Loss of pod strings in common bean is associated with gene duplication, retrotransposon insertion and overexpression of PvIND.

Fruit development has been central in the evolution and domestication of flowering plants. In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), the principal global grain legume staple, two main production categories are distinguished by fibre deposition in pods: dry beans, with fibrous, stringy pods; and stringless snap/green beans, with reduced fibre deposition, which frequently revert to the ancestral stringy state. Here, we identify genetic and developmental patterns associated with pod fibre deposition. Transcriptional, anatomical, epigenetic and genetic regulation of pod strings were explored through RNA-seq, RT-qPCR, fluorescence microscopy, bisulfite sequencing and whole-genome sequencing. Overexpression of the INDEHISCENT ('PvIND') orthologue was observed in stringless types compared with isogenic stringy lines, associated with overspecification of weak dehiscence-zone cells throughout the pod vascular sheath. No differences in DNA methylation were correlated with this phenotype. Nonstringy varieties showed a tandemly direct duplicated PvIND and a Ty1-copia retrotransposon inserted between the two repeats. These sequence features are lost during pod reversion and are predictive of pod phenotype in diverse materials, supporting their role in PvIND overexpression and reversible string phenotype. Our results give insight into reversible gain-of-function mutations and possible genetic solutions to the reversion problem, of considerable economic value for green bean production.

Genetic, anatomical, and environmental patterns related to pod shattering resistance in domesticated cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp].

Pod shattering, which causes the explosive release of seeds from the pod, is one of the main sources of yield losses in cowpea in arid and semi-arid areas. Reduction of shattering has therefore been a primary target for selection during domestication and improvement of cowpea, among other species. Using a mini-core diversity panel of 368 cowpea accessions, four regions with a statistically significant association with pod shattering were identified. Two genes (Vigun03g321100 and Vigun11g100600), involved in cell wall biosynthesis, were identified as strong candidates for pod shattering. Microscopic analysis was conducted on a subset of accessions representing the full spectrum of shattering phenotypes. This analysis indicated that the extent of wall fiber deposition was highly correlated with shattering. The results from this study also demonstrate that pod shattering in cowpea is exacerbated by arid environmental conditions. Finally, using a subset of West African landraces, patterns of historical selection for shattering resistance related to precipitation in the environment of origin were identified. Together, these results shed light on sources of resistance to pod shattering, which will, in turn, improve climate resilience of a major global nutritional staple.

The genome of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.).

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) is a major crop for worldwide food and nutritional security, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, that is resilient to hot and drought-prone environments. An assembly of the single-haplotype inbred genome of cowpea IT97K-499-35 was developed by exploiting the synergies between single-molecule real-time sequencing, optical and genetic mapping, and an assembly reconciliation algorithm. A total of 519 Mb is included in the assembled sequences. Nearly half of the assembled sequence is composed of repetitive elements, which are enriched within recombination-poor pericentromeric regions. A comparative analysis of these elements suggests that genome size differences between Vigna species are mainly attributable to changes in the amount of Gypsy retrotransposons. Conversely, genes are more abundant in more distal, high-recombination regions of the chromosomes; there appears to be more duplication of genes within the NBS-LRR and the SAUR-like auxin superfamilies compared with other warm-season legumes that have been sequenced. A surprising outcome is the identification of an inversion of 4.2 Mb among landraces and cultivars, which includes a gene that has been associated in other plants with interactions with the parasitic weed Striga gesnerioides. The genome sequence facilitated the identification of a putative syntelog for multiple organ gigantism in legumes. A revised numbering system has been adopted for cowpea chromosomes based on synteny with common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). An estimate of nuclear genome size of 640.6 Mbp based on cytometry is presented.

A multi-parent advanced generation inter-cross (MAGIC) population for genetic analysis and improvement of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.).

Multi-parent advanced generation inter-cross (MAGIC) populations are an emerging type of resource for dissecting the genetic structure of traits and improving breeding populations. We developed a MAGIC population for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) from eight founder parents. These founders were genetically diverse and carried many abiotic and biotic stress resistance, seed quality and agronomic traits relevant to cowpea improvement in the United States and sub-Saharan Africa, where cowpea is vitally important in the human diet and local economies. The eight parents were inter-crossed using structured matings to ensure that the population would have balanced representation from each parent, followed by single-seed descent, resulting in 305 F8 recombinant inbred lines each carrying a mosaic of genome blocks contributed by all founders. This was confirmed by single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping with the Illumina Cowpea Consortium Array. These lines were on average 99.74% homozygous but also diverse in agronomic traits across environments. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified for several parental traits. Loci with major effects on photoperiod sensitivity and seed size were also verified by biparental genetic mapping. The recombination events were concentrated in telomeric regions. Due to its broad genetic base, this cowpea MAGIC population promises breakthroughs in genetic gain, QTL and gene discovery, enhancement of breeding populations and, for some lines, direct releases as new varieties.

A genome-wide association and meta-analysis reveal regions associated with seed size in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp].

KEY MESSAGE: This paper combined GWAS, meta-analysis and sequence homology comparison with common bean to identify regions associated with seed size variation in domesticated cowpea. Seed size is an important trait for yield and commercial value in dry-grain cowpea. Seed size varies widely among different cowpea accessions, and the genetic basis of such variation is not yet well understood. To better decipher the genetic basis of seed size, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) and meta-analysis were conducted on a panel of 368 cowpea diverse accessions from 51 countries. Four traits, including seed weight, length, width and density were evaluated across three locations. Using 51,128 single nucleotide polymorphisms covering the cowpea genome, 17 loci were identified for these traits. One locus was common to weight, width and length, suggesting pleiotropy. By integrating synteny-based analysis with common bean, six candidate genes (Vigun05g036000, Vigun05g039600, Vigun05g204200, Vigun08g217000, Vigun11g187000, and Vigun11g191300) which are implicated in multiple functional categories related to seed size such as endosperm development, embryo development, and cell elongation were identified. These results suggest that a combination of GWAS meta-analysis with synteny comparison in a related plant is an efficient approach to identify candidate gene (s) for complex traits in cowpea. The identified loci and candidate genes provide useful information for improving cowpea varieties and for molecular investigation of seed size.

A view of the pan-genome of domesticated Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.).

Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata L. Walp., is a diploid warm-season legume of critical importance as both food and fodder in sub-Saharan Africa. This species is also grown in Northern Africa, Europe, Latin America, North America, and East to Southeast Asia. To capture the genomic diversity of domesticates of this important legume, de novo genome assemblies were produced for representatives of six subpopulations of cultivated cowpea identified previously from genotyping of several hundred diverse accessions. In the most complete assembly (IT97K-499-35), 26,026 core and 4963 noncore genes were identified, with 35,436 pan genes when considering all seven accessions. GO terms associated with response to stress and defense response were highly enriched among the noncore genes, while core genes were enriched in terms related to transcription factor activity, and transport and metabolic processes. Over 5 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) relative to each assembly and over 40 structural variants >1 Mb in size were identified by comparing genomes. Vu10 was the chromosome with the highest frequency of SNPs, and Vu04 had the most structural variants. Noncore genes harbor a larger proportion of potentially disruptive variants than core genes, including missense, stop gain, and frameshift mutations; this suggests that noncore genes substantially contribute to diversity within domesticated cowpea.

Multiple Leaf Sample Extraction System (MuLES): A tool to improve automated morphometric leaf studies.

Premise: The measurement of leaf morphometric parameters from digital images can be time-consuming or restrictive when using digital image analysis softwares. The Multiple Leaf Sample Extraction System (MuLES) is a new tool that enables high-throughput leaf shape analysis with minimal user input or prerequisites, such as coding knowledge or image modification. Methods and Results: MuLES uses contrasting pixel color values to distinguish between leaf objects and their background area, eliminating the need for color threshold-based methods or color correction cards typically required in other software methods. The leaf morphometric parameters measured by this software, especially leaf aspect ratio, were able to distinguish between large populations of different accessions for the same species in a high-throughput manner. Conclusions: MuLES provides a simple method for the rapid measurement of leaf morphometric parameters in large plant populations from digital images and demonstrates the ability of leaf aspect ratio to distinguish between closely related plant types.

Corrigendum: Seed coat pattern QTL and development in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.).

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01346.].

Identification of QTL for perenniality and floral scent in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.).

Perennial habit and floral scent are major traits that distinguish domesticated cowpeas from their wild relatives. However, the genetic basis of these two important traits remains largely unknown in cowpea. Plant longevity, a perenniality-related trait, and floral scent, an outcrossing trait, were investigated using a RIL population derived from a cross between a domesticated and a wild cowpea. QTL analysis revealed three significant loci, one on chromosome 8 associated with plant longevity and two, on chromosomes 1 and 11, for floral scent. Genes within the QTL regions were identified. Genes encoding an F-box protein (Vigun08g215300) and two kinases (Vigun08g217000, Vigun08g217800), and involved in physiological processes including regulation of flowering time and plant longevity, were identified within the perenniality QTL region. A cluster of O-methyltransferase genes (Vigun11g096800, Vigun11g096900, Vigun11g097000, Vigun11g097600, and Vigun11g097800) was identified within the floral scent QTL region. These O-methyltransferase cowpea genes are orthologs of the Arabidopsis N-acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase (ASMT) gene, which is involved in the biosynthesis of melatonin. Melatonin is an indole derivative, which is an essential molecule for plant interactions with pollinators. These findings lay the foundation for further exploration of the genetic mechanisms of perenniality and floral scent in cowpea. Knowledge from this study can help in the development of new extended-growth cycle lines with increased yield or lines with increased outcrossing for population breeding.

A Novel Root-Knot Nematode Resistance QTL on Chromosome Vu01 in Cowpea.

The root-knot nematode (RKN) species Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica cause substantial root system damage and suppress yield of susceptible cowpea cultivars. The narrow-based genetic resistance conferred by the Rk gene, present in some commercial cultivars, is not effective against Rk-virulent populations found in several cowpea production areas. The dynamics of virulence within RKN populations require a broadening of the genetic base of resistance in elite cowpea cultivars. As part of this goal, F1 and F2 populations from the cross CB46-Null (susceptible) x FN-2-9-04 (resistant) were phenotyped for M. javanica induced root-galling (RG) and egg-mass production (EM) in controlled growth chamber and greenhouse infection assays. In addition, F[Formula: see text] families of the same cross were phenotyped for RG on field sites infested with Rk-avirulent M. incognita and M. javanica The response of F1 to RG and EM indicated that resistance to RKN in FN-2-9-04 is partially dominant, as supported by the degree of dominance in the F2 and F[Formula: see text] populations. Two QTL associated with both RG and EM resistance were detected on chromosomes Vu01 and Vu04. The QTL on Vu01 was most effective against aggressive M. javanica, whereas both QTL were effective against avirulent M. incognita Allelism tests with CB46 x FN-2-9-04 progeny indicated that these parents share the same RKN resistance locus on Vu04, but the strong, broad-based resistance in FN-2-9-04 is conferred by the additive effect of the novel resistance QTL on Vu01. This novel resistance in FN-2-9-04 is an important resource for broadening RKN resistance in elite cowpea cultivars.

Seed Coat Pattern QTL and Development in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.).

The appearance of the seed is an important aspect of consumer preference for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.). Seed coat pattern in cowpea has been a subject of study for over a century. This study makes use of newly available resources, including mapping populations, a reference genome and additional genome assemblies, and a high-density single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping platform, to map various seed coat pattern traits to three loci, concurrent with the Color Factor (C), Watson (W), and Holstein (H) factors identified previously. Several gene models encoding proteins involved in regulating the later stages of the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway have been identified as candidate genes, including a basic helix-loop-helix gene (Vigun07g110700) for the C locus, a WD-repeat gene (Vigun09g139900) for the W locus and an E3 ubiquitin ligase gene (Vigun10g163900) for the H locus. A model of seed coat development, consisting of six distinct stages, is described to explain some of the observed pattern phenotypes.

Identification of Candidate Genes Controlling Black Seed Coat and Pod Tip Color in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp).

Seed coat color is an important part of consumer preferences for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp). Color has been studied in numerous crop species and has often been linked to loci controlling the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. This study makes use of available resources, including mapping populations, a reference genome, and a high-density single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping platform, to map the black seed coat and purple pod tip color traits, with the gene symbol Bl, in cowpea. Several gene models encoding MYB domain protein 113 were identified as candidate genes. MYB domain proteins have been shown in other species to control expression of genes encoding enzymes for the final steps in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. PCR analysis indicated that a presence/absence variation of one or more MYB113 genes may control the presence or absence of black pigment. A PCR marker has been developed for the MYB113 gene Vigun05g039500, a candidate gene for black seed coat color in cowpea.

Identification of QTL controlling domestication-related traits in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp).

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is a warm-season legume with a genetically diverse gene-pool composed of wild and cultivated forms. Cowpea domestication involved considerable phenotypic changes from the wild progenitor, including reduction of pod shattering, increased organ size, and changes in flowering time. Little is known about the genetic basis underlying these changes. In this study, 215 recombinant inbred lines derived from a cross between a cultivated and a wild cowpea accession were used to evaluate nine domestication-related traits (pod shattering, peduncle length, flower color, days to flowering, 100-seed weight, pod length, leaf length, leaf width and seed number per pod). A high-density genetic map containing 17,739 single nucleotide polymorphisms was constructed and used to identify 16 quantitative trait loci (QTL) for these nine traits. Based on annotations of the cowpea reference genome, genes within these regions are reported. Four regions with clusters of QTL were identified, including one on chromosome 8 related to increased organ size. This study provides new knowledge of the genomic regions controlling domestication-related traits in cowpea as well as candidate genes underlying those QTL. This information can help to exploit wild relatives in cowpea breeding programs.