Calcium imaging of muscle cells treated with snake myotoxins reveals toxin synergism and presence of acceptors.

Snake myotoxins have a great impact on human health worldwide. Most of them adopt a phospholipase A2 fold and occur in two forms which often co-exist in the same venom: the Asp49 toxins hydrolyse phospholipids, whilst Lys49 toxins are enzymatically inactive. To gain insights into their mechanism of action, muscle cells were exposed to Bothrops myotoxins, and cytosolic Ca(2+) and cytotoxicity were measured. In both myoblasts and myotubes, the myotoxins induced a rapid and transient rise in cytosolic [Ca(2+)], derived from intracellular stores, followed, only in myotubes, by a large Ca(2+) influx and extensive cell death. Myoblast viability was unaffected. Notably, in myotubes Asp49 and Lys49 myotoxins acted synergistically to increase the plasma membrane Ca(2+) permeability, inducing cell death. Therefore, these myotoxins may bind to acceptor(s) coupled to intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization in both myoblasts and myotubes. However, in myotubes only, the toxins alter plasma membrane permeability, leading to death.

The effect of myotoxins isolated from Bothrops snake venoms on multilamellar liposomes: relationship to phospholipase A2, anticoagulant and myotoxic activities.

The effect of four myotoxins isolated from Bothrops snake venoms on the release of peroxidase trapped in large multilamellar liposomes was studied and correlated to their phospholipase A2, myotoxic and anticoagulant activities. The four myotoxins affected negatively-charged liposomes in a dose-dependent way, having no effect on positively-charged liposomes. Conditions that inhibited phospholipase A2 activity, i.e., substitution of calcium by EDTA, reduced liposome-disrupting activity of Bothrops asper myotoxin I and Bothrops atrox myotoxin, both of which have high phospholipase A2 activity, but did not affect the action of B. asper myotoxin II and Bothrops moojeni myotoxin II, which have extremely low phospholipase A2 activity. However, all myotoxins disrupted to some extent negatively-charged liposomes under conditions where phospholipase A2 activity was abolished. Since these toxins behave as amphiphilic proteins in charge-shift electrophoresis, it is suggested that membrane-disorganization is at least partially due to a non-enzymatic penetration and alteration of bilayers. There was no strict correlation between liposome-disrupting activity and myotoxicity in vivo. Thus, although both effects probably depend on the toxins' ability to disturb membranes, it is likely that variation in complexity between skeletal muscle plasma membrane and liposome bilayers are the basis for this difference. The anticoagulant effect seems to depend on the ability of the toxins to enzymatically degrade phospholipids, since only B. asper myotoxin I and B. atrox myotoxin prolonged the plasma recalcification time.

Tyr-->Trp-substituted peptide 115-129 of a Lys49 phospholipase A(2) expresses enhanced membrane-damaging activities and reproduces its in vivo myotoxic effect.

Myotoxin II is a group II Lys49 phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) isolated from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Previous studies on a synthetic peptide derived from its heparin-binding, cationic/hydrophobic sequence 115-129 demonstrated a direct functional role of this particular region in the in vitro cytolytic and bactericidal actions of the protein. Nevertheless, no significant myonecrosis has been observed after local intramuscular injection of peptide 115-129 (p115-129) in mice. Since the membrane-damaging action of p115-129 was proposed to depend on its amphiphilic character, the present study examined the effects of substituting its cluster of three tyrosine residues by tryptophan residues, on its toxic/pharmacological activities in vitro and in vivo. This substitution resulted in a drastic enhancement of the membrane-damaging activities of the peptide (p115-W3), together with the clear expression of myotoxic activity in vivo. Both the heparin-binding and antigenic characteristics of p115-129 were essentially conserved in p115-W3, suggesting that the modification did not lead to radical structural alterations. In addition to myotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and bactericidal action, p115-W3 exerted edema-forming activity in the mouse footpad assay. Thus, the synthetic 13-mer p115-W3 reproduced all the known toxic effects of myotoxin II. In spite of its potent membrane-damaging actions, p115-W3 did not acquire direct hemolytic activity upon mouse erythrocytes, an effect which is not present in myotoxin II, but that has been ascribed to the presence of tryptophan in other cationic, membrane-damaging peptides such as mellitin from bee venom. The myotoxic activity of p115-W3 herein described constitutes the first example of a short, PLA(2)-based linear synthetic peptide with the ability to reproduce this effect of a parent protein in vivo. This finding is in clear support of the proposed relevance of the C-terminal region 115-129 in all the membrane-damaging mechanisms exerted by myotoxin II, including the myotoxic mechanism.

Isolation and characterization of myotoxin II from Atropoides (Bothrops) nummifer snake venom, a new Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologue.

Myotoxic phospholipases A2 of class II are commonly found in the venoms of crotalid snakes. As an approach to understanding their structure-activity relationship, diverse natural variants have been characterized biochemically and pharmacologically. This study describes a new myotoxic phospholipase A2 homologue, isolated from the venom of Atropoides (Bothrops) nummifer from Costa Rica. A. nummifer myotoxin 1 is a basic protein, with an apparent subunit molecular mass of 16 kDa, which migrates as a dimer in sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under nonreducing conditions. It is strongly recognized by antibodies generated against Bothrops asper myotoxin II, by enzyme-immunoassay. The toxin induces rapid myonecrosis upon intramuscular injection in mice (evidenced by an early increase in plasma creatine kinase activity), and significant edema in the footpad assay. It also displays cytolytic activity upon cultured murine endothelial cells. The toxin (up to 50 microg) has no detectable phospholipase A2 activity on egg yolk phospholipids, and does not show an anticoagulant effect on sheep platelet-poor plasma in vitro. N-terminal sequence determination (53 amino acid residues) demonstrated that A. nummifer myotoxin II is a new Lys49 variant of the family of myotoxic, class II phospholipases A2. Sequence comparison with other phospholipases A2 revealed Asn53 as a novel substitution. In addition, this myotoxin is the first Lys49 variant presenting Asn in its N-terminus. Consequently, these findings suggest that neither Ser1 or Lys53, usually found in this family of proteins, are essential amino acid residues for their myotoxic, cytolytic, or edema-inducing effects.

Myotoxic phospholipases A(2) in bothrops snake venoms: effect of chemical modifications on the enzymatic and pharmacological properties of bothropstoxins from Bothrops jararacussu.

Venoms from eight Bothrops spp. were fractionated by ion-exchange chromatography on CM-Sepharose at pH 8.0 for the purification of myotoxins. Chromatographic profiles showed differences regarding myotoxic components among these venoms. B. alternatus, B. atrox and B. jararaca venoms did not show the major basic myotoxic fractions identified in the other venoms. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for basic proteins also showed distinct patterns for these toxins. In vivo, all the isolated myotoxins induced release of creatine kinase due to necrosis of muscle fibers, accompanied by polymorphonuclear cell infiltration, and edema in the mouse paw. In addition, the toxins showed cytotoxic and liposome-disrupting activities in vitro. B. jararacussu bothropstoxins-I (BthTX-I) and II (BthTX-II) were submitted to chemical modifications of: His, by 4-bromophenacyl bromide (BPB) or photooxidation by Rose Bengal (RB); Tyr, by 2-nitrobenzenesulphonyl fluoride (NBSF); and Trp, by o-nitrophenylsulphenyl chloride (NPSC). The myotoxic and cytotoxic activities of BthTX-I, a Lys49 PLA(2) homologue, after modification by BPB, RB, NBSF and NPSC, were reduced to 50%, 20%, 75%, 65% and 13%, 0.5%, 76%, 58%, respectively. However, the edema-inducing and liposome-disrupting activities were not significantly reduced by the above modifications. BPB-treated BthTX-II, an Asp49 PLA(2) homologue, lost most of its catalytic, indirect hemolytic, anticoagulant, myotoxic and cytotoxic activities. The edema-inducing and liposome-disrupting activities were reduced to 50% and 80%, respectively. Lethality caused by BthTX-I and -II was strongly reduced after treatment with BPB or RB, but only partially with NBSF or NPSC. BthTX-I and -II, both native or modified, migrated similarly in a charge-shift electrophoresis. Antibodies raised against BthTX-I or -II, B. asper Basp-II and the C-terminal 115-129 peptide from Basp-II did not show significant differences in their cross-reactivity with the modified toxins, except with RB photooxidized toxins.

An MTT-based method for the in vivo quantification of myotoxic activity of snake venoms and its neutralization by antibodies.

The reduction of the tetrazolium compound MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide) was used as the basis for the development of a simple method for the quantitative estimation of metabolically active skeletal muscle tissue remaining after in vivo venom-induced myonecrosis. Using the venom of the snake Micrurus nigrocinctus as a potent myotoxic agent, this MTT-based technique was evaluated in comparison with available methods based on the measurement of creatine kinase (CK) activity, and a quantitative histological technique considered as a reference. Homogenates of the gastrocnemius muscle prepared in the presence of 1% Triton X-100 reduced MTT and this activity correlated closely with the number of viable cells in the tissue, as determined by histological evaluation. After venom injection, residual MTT-reducing activity of muscle homogenates showed higher correlation to the myonecrosis index obtained by histological analysis, than residual muscle CK activity. Using the new MTT-based assay, the ability of an anti-M. nigrocinctus equine antivenom to neutralize venom myotoxins was studied. The myotoxic activity of the venom was completely neutralized using 4 ml antivenom/mg venom, with a 50% effective dose (ED50) value of about 2.5 ml/mg. The MTT-based method described should be useful in the estimation and standardization of anti-myotoxic potency of antivenoms, and in the screening of other neutralizing agents, as a convenient and reliable alternative to the time-consuming quantitative histological methods.

Neutralization of the cytolytic and myotoxic activities of phospholipases A2 from Bothrops asper snake venom by glycosaminoglycans of the heparin/heparan sulfate family.

Basic phospholipases A2 from the venom of Bothrops asper exhibit skeletal muscle damaging activity in vivo, and cytolytic activity to a variety of cell types in culture. Glycosaminoglycans of the heparin/heparan sulfate family were found to be potent blockers of the cytolytic action in vitro, and, as well, to be able to neutralize the muscle damaging activity of purified myotoxins and crude venom in vivo. However, the neutralizing effect of heparins was more potent in vitro than in vivo. The cytolytic activity of myotoxin II (a lysine-49 phospholipase A2 isoform) and its inhibition by heparin was characterized. The neutralizing effect of heparin did not depend on its anticoagulant activity, since both standard heparin and heparin with low affinity for antithrombin (LA-heparin) had a similar efficiency. Heparan sulfate and low molecular mass heparin (5 kDa) also neutralized myotoxin II. In contrast, different heparin-derived disaccharides were unable to block cytolysis, implying a requirement for a longer carbohydrate chain structure for the interaction with the protein. By affinity chromatography and gel diffusion, it was demonstrated that heparins form a complex with all isoforms of basic venom myotoxins, held at least in part by electrostatic interactions. The phospholipase A2 activity of myotoxin III, a related aspartate-49 isoform from the same venom, was unaffected by heparins, despite the fact that its myotoxic activity was inhibited, indicating a dissociation of the two actions.

Antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in dyspeptic patients, asymptomatic adults, and children from Costa Rica.

An enzyme immunoassay for the detection of serum IgG antibodies to H. pylori whole bacterial sonicate was used in a study of dyspeptic adult patients (n = 165), apparently healthy blood donors (n = 154), and children (n = 66) from Costa Rica, where a very high incidence of gastric carcinoma is observed. The mean antibody levels and frequency distributions were similar in the dyspeptic patients and the blood donors. Meanwhile lower antibody levels to H. pylori were more frequently observed in children than in adults, suggesting an age-dependent increase in seroprevalence, as described in studies from other populations.

Edema-forming activity of bushmaster (Lachesis muta stenophrys) and Central American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus durissus) venoms and neutralization by a polyvalent antivenom.

The edema effect induced in mice by venoms of Crotalus durissus durissus and Lachesis muta stenophrys was studied. Minimum edema-forming doses were 11 and 5 micrograms, respectively. Edema developed very rapidly after injections of both venoms and reached a maximum at 6 hr. Neutralizing activity was tested by preincubation of the venoms with polyvalent antivenom. The edema induced by the venom of L. m. stenophrys was partially neutralized, whereas that induced by the venom of C. d. durissus was not neutralized.

Production and partial characterization of monoclonal antibodies to Bothrops asper (terciopelo) myotoxin.

Seven murine monoclonal antibodies against Bothrops asper myotoxin were produced and partially characterized. They revealed the presence of at least four cross-reacting basic components in crude venom, with a common subunit mol. wt of 16,000 by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but slight differences in charge. These myotoxin-related components might be isoforms of the toxin. By Western blotting and enzyme-immunoassay binding techniques, differences in the reactivities with basic venom fractions were observed among monoclonal antibodies, suggesting differences in epitope specificities. Three antibodies cross-reacted with B. nummifer crude venom. Two monoclonal antibodies were utilized to develop a two-site enzyme-immunoassay for myotoxin detection at the nanogram level. Three of the antibodies (one IgM and two IgG1) showed ability to neutralize myotoxicity of purified myotoxin in preincubation type experiments.

Neutralization of myonecrosis, hemorrhage, and edema induced by Bothrops asper snake venom by homologous and heterologous pre-existing antibodies in mice.

The ability of pre-existing antibodies to neutralize locally-acting toxins of Bothrops asper snake venom was investigated. Hemorrhage, myonecrosis, and edema were markedly reduced in actively immunized mice, although none of these effects was completely abolished. In mice passively immunized with equine antivenom, hemorrhage was prevented completely, while myonecrosis and edema were partially reduced. Pre-existing antibodies did not modify the early stage (< 3 hr) of venom-induced edema, but significantly accelerated the normalization of this effect within 24 hr. Passive administration of antivenom either 5 or 120 min before venom injection gave similar results, suggesting that the presence of antibodies in the intravascular compartment may fully neutralize locally acting toxins, in this experimental animal model. Overall, the homologous or heterologous origin of antibodies was not a significant factor influencing their in vivo neutralizing efficiency against local venom effects. Antibody titrations by enzyme-immunoassay using purified toxins and whole venom indicated that serum from actively-immunized mice had a higher proportion of anti-myotoxin antibodies than equine antivenom.

Inhibition of the myotoxic activity of Bothrops asper myotoxin II in mice by immunization with its synthetic 13-mer peptide 115-129.

The region comprising amino acid residues 115-129 of myotoxin II, a Lys49 phospholipase A2 from the venom of Bothrops asper, was previously shown to constitute a heparin binding site, and to be associated with its toxic activities. The corresponding synthetic peptide, KKYRYYLKPLCKK, was coupled to diphtheria toxoid as a carrier, and utilized as an immunogen in mice, to explore the possible protection from the myotoxic activity induced by myotoxin II in vivo. Mice receiving peptide-carrier injections produced antibodies to peptide 115-129, which cross-reacted to myotoxin II, as determined by enzyme-immunoassay. In contrast, no antibodies against peptide 115-129 were detected in mice immunized with myotoxin II, despite the strong antibody response to the whole antigen. Thus, region 115-129 of myotoxin II is not an immunodominant B-cell epitope in the mouse. After immunization with conjugated peptide or myotoxin II, mice were challenged with myotoxin II, and the extent of myonecrosis was estimated by determining their plasma creatine kinase activity, in comparison to non-immunized mice. After the challenge, both the group immunized with myotoxin II, and the group immunized with peptide 115-129, had a significant reduction of myonecrosis. These results demonstrate that region 115-129 of myotoxin II constitutes a neutralizing epitope, and provide further evidence for the relevance of this region in its myotoxic effect in vivo.

Phospholipase A2 myotoxins from Bothrops snake venoms.

Several myotoxins have been isolated from Bothrops snake venoms during the last 10 years. All of them are group II basic phospholipases A2, although some lack enzymatic activity (i.e. Lys-49 variants). These myotoxins appear as an antigenically related family of proteins occurring in many, but not all, Bothrops venoms, bearing a close structural and antigenic relationship to toxins found in other crotalid venoms of the genera Agkistrodon and Trimeresurus. Myotoxins are quantitatively important venom components in some Bothrops species. Intramuscular injection of Bothrops myotoxins leads to a rapid series of drastic degenerative events, probably initiated at the plasma membrane level, which culminate in a selective skeletal muscle necrosis. This in vivo specificity contrasts with the ability of myotoxins to lyse many types of cells in culture. Muscle damage, as well as cytolysis and liposome disruption, occur in conditions where phospholipase A2 activity is inhibited, although enzymatic activity might enhance myotoxin actions. A membrane receptor for Bothrops myotoxins has not been identified yet. A working hypothesis on the mechanism of action is proposed. Current evidence suggests that these toxins interact with biological membranes via a molecular region distinct from their known catalytic site. The active region is likely to be formed by a combination of basic and hydrophobic amino acid residues near the C-terminus of the protein, which allow electrostatic interaction and bilayer penetration. These events may lead to membrane destabilization and loss of selective permeability to ions such as calcium, both of which appear to be important mediators in the process of muscle necrosis.

A new muscle damaging toxin, myotoxin II, from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper (terciopelo).

A new muscle damaging toxin, myotoxin II, was purified from the venom of Bothrops asper by ion-exchange chromatography on CM-Sephadex C-25. The toxin is a dimeric, basic protein with a monomer mol.wt of 13,341, according to the amino acid composition, and 16,000 on the basis of SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic mobility. It has a high number of aspartate and lysine residues, as well as of hydrophobic amino acids. Upon i.m. injection into mice, the toxin induces myonecrosis and increase in serum creatine kinase levels. In addition, myotoxin II induces edema in the mouse foot pad. Immunochemical tests, mol.wt, and amino acid composition indicate a high degree of homology between myotoxin II and a previously characterized myotoxin from this venom, myotoxin I. However, in contrast to myotoxin I, myotoxin II lacks phospholipase A2 and anticoagulant activities in vitro.

Detection of proteins antigenically related to Bothrops asper myotoxin in crotaline snake venoms.

The presence of components antigenically related to Bothrops asper myotoxin was investigated by Western blotting and immunoelectrophoretic techniques. B. asper myotoxin is a non-glycosylated monomeric phospholipase A with a molecular weight by SDS-PAGE of 16,000 and isoelectric point of pH 9.8-10.0. Results showed that proteins in the venoms of B. nummifer, B. godmani, B. schlegelii, B. picadoi, and Agkistrodon bilineatus were recognized by monospecific antibodies to B. asper myotoxin raised in rabbit and sheep. Western blotting indicated that cross-reacting proteins have a molecular weight of 16,000, with the exception of that of B. picadoi, which is of 24,000 mol. wt. However, immunoelectrophoresis indicated that these components are highly heterogeneous in charge, ranging from basic to acidic proteins. The cross-reacting component(s) present in newborn B. asper venom has a different charge from that of the 'adult-type'. Venoms from newborn specimens showed an additional cross-reacting band of 18,000 mol. wt. Myotoxin is an abundant component in adult B. asper venom. Myotoxin-antimyotoxin complexes had different electrophoretic mobilities in rocket immunoelectrophoresis depending upon the species in which monospecific immune sera were produced.

Isolation and partial characterization of a myotoxin from the venom of the snake Bothrops nummifer.

A myotoxin from the venom of the snake Bothrops nummifer was purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange chromatography on CM-Sephadex. The toxin is a basic dimer with a subunit molecular weight of 16,000, as estimated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The toxin lacks phospholipase A2 activity when tested on egg yolk lecithin and skeletal muscle homogenates. It induces skeletal muscle damage both in vivo and in vitro. When injected i.m. it promotes a drastic increase in serum creatine kinase levels; the isozyme CK-MM is responsible for this increment. A rapid release of creatine kinase was observed when mouse gastrocnemius muscle was incubated with the toxin, suggesting that it induces the formation of relatively large 'lesions' in the plasma membrane of muscle cells. Moreover, analysis of the dose-response data indicated that the myotoxin affects muscle sarcolemma by a 'one hit' mechanism. Skeletal muscle cells are affected by the toxin when calcium is eliminated from the medium. The myotoxin has an i.v. LD50 of 3.9 mg/kg body weight in mice, and induces edema when injected in the foot pad. On the other hand, it is not directly hemolytic, anticoagulant, hemorrhagic nor cytotoxic for lymphocytes. The myotoxin shows partial immunologic identity with a myotoxic phospholipase A2 isolated from Bothrops asper venom. The polyvalent antivenom produced in Costa Rica forms a precipitation arc against B. nummifer myotoxin on immunoelectrophoresis.

The dynamics of local tissue damage induced by Bothrops asper snake venom and myotoxin II on the mouse cremaster muscle: an intravital and electron microscopic study.

The acute tissue damaging effects of Bothrops asper snake venom and a myotoxic Lys-49 phospholipase A2 (myotoxin II) on the mouse cremaster muscle were studied by intravital and electron microscopy. Both venom and myotoxin induced local contractions of the muscle fibres within 10-60 sec after exposure, which disappeared after 1-2 min. This observation is consistent with the hypothesis that Bothrops myotoxins act initially at the sarcolemma by affecting its permeability and allowing an influx of calcium. The venom also induced an early but transient vasoconstriction of arterioles. The development of edema was monitored using i.v. FITC-dextran as a marker. Plasma leakage started after about 2 min of exposure to venom or myotoxin, was extensive by 4-5 min, and originated from small venules and their adjoining capillary segments. The venom induced formation of thrombi and emboli in venules, but not in arterioles. Haemorrhage appeared after 4-6 min of exposure, the bleedings always originating from capillaries and small venules. The microbleedings were explosive, appearing as rapid bursts of erythrocytes into the extravascular space, and suggesting a per rhexis type of haemorrhage. This was confirmed by electron microscopy evaluation of the same microvessels observed intravitally, which showed erythrocyte extravasation through gaps in damaged endothelial cells. Other phenomena in the microcirculation included blood-flow disturbances, crenation and sphering of erythrocytes, and stasis with dense packing of cells in capillary networks. Muscle necrosis, caused by either venom or myotoxin, started 3-4 min after application. The first sign of damage in the fibres was the development of a narrow, transverse band with local loss of striation. This was followed by slow retraction of myofibrils until there was a complete transverse rupture of the fibre. This process was often repeated along the same fibre, leaving a row of fragments separated by spaces apparently devoid of myofibrillar material. The results confirm the rapid tissue damaging effects of B. asper venom, implying that potentially useful blocking agents must be administered early and have the ability to diffuse rapidly into the tissues.

Immunohistochemical demonstration of the binding of Bothrops asper myotoxin to skeletal muscle sarcolemma.

The binding of Bothrops asper myotoxin to mouse skeletal muscle was studied at both the light and electron microscope levels using the peroxidase anti-peroxidase technique. The toxin binds to muscle cell sarcolemma, and there are no intracellular binding sites. This study corroborates previous observations which suggested that the sarcolemma is the first site of action of B. asper myotoxin.

Similar effectiveness of Fab and F(ab')2 antivenoms in the neutralization of hemorrhagic activity of Vipera berus snake venom in mice.

The ability of two antivenoms to Vipera spp., consisting of Fab (Therapeutic Antibodies), or of F(ab')2 (Zagreb Institute of Immunology) antibody fragments, to neutralize the hemorrhagic activity of Vipera berus snake venom in mice, was compared. First, the neutralizing potency was determined by in vitro preincubation of venom and antivenom, followed by intradermal injection into mice and subsequent measurement of the hemorrhagic area. Both antivenoms had the same anti-hemorrhagic potency, in terms of volume of antivenom/mass of venom, with an estimated ED50 (50% reduction of the effect) of 80 microliters antivenom/mg venom. Therefore, no adjustments in dose were necessary for subsequent in vivo comparative experiments. When the antivenoms were administered intravenously into mice immediately after intradermal venom injection, there was no difference in their effectiveness in reducing hemorrhagic lesions, at all doses tested. These results indicate that neutralization of local hemorrhagic activity of V. berus venom in vivo is not improved by the use of the smaller Fab fragments, in comparison to F(ab')2, when equivalent neutralizing units are injected. However, this does not exclude the possibility that other clinically relevant venom effects may be neutralized with different efficiency by Fab or F(ab')2 fragments of antibodies.