Phosphoproteomic evaluation of pharmacological inhibition of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reveals significant off-target effects of LRRK-2-IN-1.

Genetic mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been linked to autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. The most prevalent mutation, G2019S, results in enhanced LRRK2 kinase activity that potentially contributes to the etiology of Parkinson's disease. Consequently, disease progression is potentially mediated by poorly characterized phosphorylation-dependent LRRK2 substrate pathways. To address this gap in knowledge, we transduced SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with LRRK2 G2019S via adenovirus, then determined quantitative changes in the phosphoproteome upon LRRK2 kinase inhibition (LRRK2-IN-1 treatment) using stable isotope labeling of amino acids in culture combined with phosphopeptide enrichment and LC-MS/MS analysis. We identified 776 phosphorylation sites that were increased or decreased at least 50% in response to LRRK2-IN-1 treatment, including sites on proteins previously known to associate with LRRK2. Bioinformatic analysis of those phosphoproteins suggested a potential role for LRRK2 kinase activity in regulating pro-inflammatory responses and neurite morphology, among other pathways. In follow-up experiments, LRRK2-IN-1 inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) levels in astrocytes and also enhanced multiple neurite characteristics in primary neuronal cultures. However, LRRK2-IN-1 had almost identical effects in primary glial and neuronal cultures from LRRK2 knockout mice. These data suggest LRRK2-IN-1 may inhibit pathways of perceived LRRK2 pathophysiological function independently of LRRK2 highlighting the need to use multiple pharmacological tools and genetic approaches in studies determining LRRK2 function.

Efficacy of systemic administration of SDF-1 in a model of vascular insufficiency: support for an endothelium-dependent mechanism.

OBJECTIVE: Studies have reported that administration of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), the ligand for the G-protein coupled receptor CXCR4, increased collateral blood flow in a mouse model of vascular insufficiency via recruitment of endothelial precursor cells (EPC). The present study investigated the contribution of mature endothelial cells in the actions of SDF-1. METHODS: The regulation of SDF-1 and CXCR4 was examined in the rat cornea cauterization (CC) and aortic ring (AR) model. The functional significance of the SDF-1/CXCR4 pathway was explored in cultured endothelial cells, the AR model, and on collateral blood flow in a rat model of vascular insufficiency. RESULTS: In the present study, the CXCR4 transcript was dramatically upregulated in the rat CC and AR explants, systems containing and lacking bone marrow-derived EPCs, respectively. Addition of AMD3100, a selective CXCR4 antagonist, had no effect on vessel growth in the AR alone, but completely inhibited SDF-1 mediated increases in vascular sprouting. In cultured endothelial cells, SDF-1 alone or in combination with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) significantly enhanced cell survival and migration. Finally, systemic administration of SDF-1 in a rat model of arterial insufficiency enhanced collateral blood flow above vehicle control and equal to that of VEGF after 2 weeks of treatment. CONCLUSION: These studies support activation of the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis as a means to promote blood vessel growth and enhance collateral blood flow, at least in part, via direct effects on vascular endothelial cells.

MAP4K4 Is a Threonine Kinase That Phosphorylates FARP1.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase 4 (MAP4K4) regulates the MEK kinase cascade and is implicated in cytoskeletal rearrangement and migration; however, identifying MAP4K4 substrates has remained a challenge. To ascertain MAP4K4-dependent phosphorylation events, we combined phosphoproteomic studies of MAP4K4 inhibition with in vitro assessment of its kinase specificity. We identified 235 phosphosites affected by MAP4K4 inhibition in cells and found that pTP and pSP motifs were predominant among them. In contrast, in vitro assessment of kinase specificity showed that MAP4K4 favors a pTL motif. We showed that MAP4K4 directly phosphorylates and coimmunoprecipitates with FERM, RhoGEF, and pleckstrin domain-containing protein 1 (FARP1). MAP4K4 inhibition in SH-SY5Y cells increases neurite outgrowth, a process known to involve FARP1. As FARP1 and MAP4K4 both contribute to cytoskeletal rearrangement, the results suggest that MAP4K4 exerts some of its effects on the cytoskeleton via phosphorylation of FARP1.

Application of multiplexed capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence (MCE-LIF) detection for the rapid measurement of endogenous extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) levels in cell extracts.

Multiplexed (96-lane) capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence (MCE-LIF) detection was used for the rapid analysis of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) levels from in vitro cell extracts. The levels of ERK enzyme in cell extracts were determined by monitoring the conversion of a fluorescent-labeled peptide substrate to a phosphorylated fluorescent-labeled peptide product using MCE-LIF. The incorporation of a fluorescent internal standard was found to improve the precision of the analysis. The enzyme assay conditions including substrate concentration, reaction time and enzyme linear range were rapidly optimized using the MCE-LIF approach for both direct and immunoprecipitation-based ERK assays. The levels of ERK from in vitro cell extracts stimulated with angiopoietin 1 (Ang1*) were determined using the MCE-LIF approach. The advantages of MCE-LIF for developing and applying enzyme assays, as well as the figures of merit for the direct and immunoprecipitation ERK assays, are discussed.

Human A53T α-synuclein causes reversible deficits in mitochondrial function and dynamics in primary mouse cortical neurons.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. A key pathological feature of PD is Lewy bodies, of which the major protein component is α-synuclein (α-syn). Human genetic studies have shown that mutations (A53T, A30P, E46K) and multiplication of the α-syn gene are linked to familial PD. Mice overexpressing the human A53T mutant α-syn gene develop severe movement disorders. However, the molecular mechanisms of α-syn toxicity are not well understood. Recently, mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked with multiple neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease. Here we investigated whether mitochondrial motility, dynamics and respiratory function are affected in primary neurons from a mouse model expressing the human A53T mutation. We found that mitochondrial motility was selectively inhibited in A53T neurons while transport of other organelles was not affected. In addition, A53T expressing neurons showed impairment in mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial respiratory function. Furthermore, we found that rapamycin, an autophagy inducer, rescued the decreased mitochondrial mobility. Taken together, these data demonstrate that A53T α-syn impairs mitochondrial function and dynamics and the deficit of mitochondrial transport is reversible, providing further understanding of the disease pathogenesis and a potential therapeutic strategy for PD.