Highly conserved and extremely evolvable: BMP signalling in secondary axis patterning of Cnidaria and Bilateria.

Bilateria encompass the vast majority of the animal phyla. As the name states, they are bilaterally symmetric, that is with a morphologically clear main body axis connecting their anterior and posterior ends, a second axis running between their dorsal and ventral surfaces, and with a left side being roughly a mirror image of their right side. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling has widely conserved functions in the formation and patterning of the second, dorso-ventral (DV) body axis, albeit to different extents in different bilaterian species. Whilst initial findings in the fruit fly Drosophila and the frog Xenopus highlighted similarities amongst these evolutionarily very distant species, more recent analyses featuring other models revealed considerable diversity in the mechanisms underlying dorsoventral patterning. In fact, as phylogenetic sampling becomes broader, we find that this axis patterning system is so evolvable that even its core components can be deployed differently or lost in different model organisms. In this review, we will try to highlight the diversity of ways by which BMP signalling controls bilaterality in different animals, some of which do not belong to Bilateria. Future research combining functional analyses and modelling is bound to give us some understanding as to where the limits to the extent of the evolvability of BMP-dependent axial patterning may lie.

Tuning Protein Diffusivity with Membrane Tethers.

Diffusion is essential for biochemical processes because it dominates molecular movement on small scales. Enzymatic reactions, for example, require fast exchange of substrate and product molecules in the local environment of the enzyme to ensure efficient turnover. On larger spatial scales, diffusion of secreted signaling proteins is thought to limit the spatial extent of tissue differentiation during embryonic development. While it is possible to measure diffusion in vivo, specifically interfering with diffusion processes and testing diffusion models directly remains challenging. The development of genetically encoded nanobodies that bind specific proteins has provided the opportunity to alter protein localization and reduce protein mobility. Here, we extend the nanobody toolbox with a membrane-tethered low-affinity diffusion regulator that can be used to tune the effective diffusivity of extracellular molecules over an order of magnitude in living embryos. This opens new avenues for future applications to functionally interfere with diffusion-dependent processes.

Regulation of Nodal signaling propagation by receptor interactions and positive feedback.

During vertebrate embryogenesis, the germ layers are patterned by secreted Nodal signals. In the classical model, Nodals elicit signaling by binding to a complex comprising Type I/II Activin receptors (Acvr) and the co-receptor Tdgf1. However, it is currently unclear whether receptor binding can also affect the distribution of Nodals themselves through the embryo, and it is unknown which of the putative Acvr paralogs mediate Nodal signaling in zebrafish. Here, we characterize three Type I (Acvr1) and four Type II (Acvr2) homologs and show that - except for Acvr1c - all receptor-encoding transcripts are maternally deposited and present during zebrafish embryogenesis. We generated mutants and used them together with combinatorial morpholino knockdown and CRISPR F0 knockout (KO) approaches to assess compound loss-of-function phenotypes. We discovered that the Acvr2 homologs function partly redundantly and partially independently of Nodal to pattern the early zebrafish embryo, whereas the Type I receptors Acvr1b-a and Acvr1b-b redundantly act as major mediators of Nodal signaling. By combining quantitative analyses with expression manipulations, we found that feedback-regulated Type I receptors and co-receptors can directly influence the diffusion and distribution of Nodals, providing a mechanism for the spatial restriction of Nodal signaling during germ layer patterning.

Building a body is complicated. Cells must organise themselves head-to-tail, belly-to-back, and inside-to-outside. They do this by laying down a chemical map, which is made up of gradients of molecular signals, high in some places and lower in others. The amount of signal each cell receives helps to decide which part of the body it will become. One of the essential signals in developing vertebrates is Nodal. It helps cells to tell inside from outside and left from right. Cells detect Nodal using an activin receptor and co-receptor complex, which catch hold of passing Nodal proteins and transmit developmental signals into cells. An important model to study Nodal signals is the zebrafish embryo, but the identity of the activin receptors and their exact role in this organism has been unclear. To find out more, Preiß, Kögler, Mörsdorf et al. studied the activin receptors Acvr1 and Acvr2 in zebrafish embryos. The experiments revealed that two putative Acvr1 and four Acvr2 receptors were present during early development. To better understand their roles, Preiß et al. eliminated them one at a time, and in combination. Losing single activin receptors had no effect. But losing both Acvr1 receptors together stopped Nodal signalling and changed the distribution of the Nodal gradient. Loss of all Acvr2 receptors also caused developmental problems, but they were partly independent of Nodal. This suggests that Acvr1s seem to be able to transmit signals and to shape the Nodal gradient, and that Acvr2s might have another, so far unknown, role. Nodal signals guide the development of all vertebrates. Understanding how they work in a model species like zebrafish could shed light on their role in other species, including humans. A clearer picture could help to uncover what happens at a molecular level when development goes wrong.

Single-molecule tracking of Nodal and Lefty in live zebrafish embryos supports hindered diffusion model.

The hindered diffusion model postulates that the movement of a signaling molecule through an embryo is affected by tissue geometry and binding-mediated hindrance, but these effects have not been directly demonstrated in vivo. Here, we visualize extracellular movement and binding of individual molecules of the activator-inhibitor signaling pair Nodal and Lefty in live developing zebrafish embryos using reflected light-sheet microscopy. We observe that diffusion coefficients of molecules are high in extracellular cavities, whereas mobility is reduced and bound fractions are high within cell-cell interfaces. Counterintuitively, molecules nevertheless accumulate in cavities, which we attribute to the geometry of the extracellular space by agent-based simulations. We further find that Nodal has a larger bound fraction than Lefty and shows a binding time of tens of seconds. Together, our measurements and simulations provide direct support for the hindered diffusion model and yield insights into the nanometer-to-micrometer-scale mechanisms that lead to macroscopic signal dispersal.

Quantitative diffusion measurements using the open-source software PyFRAP.

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and inverse FRAP (iFRAP) assays can be used to assess the mobility of fluorescent molecules. These assays measure diffusion by monitoring the return of fluorescence in bleached regions (FRAP), or the dissipation of fluorescence from photoconverted regions (iFRAP). However, current FRAP/iFRAP analysis methods suffer from simplified assumptions about sample geometry, bleaching/photoconversion inhomogeneities, and the underlying reaction-diffusion kinetics. To address these shortcomings, we developed the software PyFRAP, which fits numerical simulations of three-dimensional models to FRAP/iFRAP data and accounts for bleaching/photoconversion inhomogeneities. Using PyFRAP we determined the diffusivities of fluorescent molecules spanning two orders of magnitude in molecular weight. We measured the tortuous effects that cell-like obstacles exert on effective diffusivity and show that reaction kinetics can be accounted for by model selection. These applications demonstrate the utility of PyFRAP, which can be widely adapted as a new extensible standard for FRAP analysis.

Scale-invariant patterning by size-dependent inhibition of Nodal signalling.

Individuals can vary substantially in size, but the proportions of their body plans are often maintained. We generated smaller zebrafish by removing 30% of their cells at the blastula stages and found that these embryos developed into normally patterned individuals. Strikingly, the proportions of all germ layers adjusted to the new embryo size within 2 hours after cell removal. As Nodal-Lefty signalling controls germ-layer patterning, we performed a computational screen for scale-invariant models of this activator-inhibitor system. This analysis predicted that the concentration of the highly diffusive inhibitor Lefty increases in smaller embryos, leading to a decreased Nodal activity range and contracted germ-layer dimensions. In vivo studies confirmed that Lefty concentration increased in smaller embryos, and embryos with reduced Lefty levels or with diffusion-hindered Lefty failed to scale their tissue proportions. These results reveal that size-dependent inhibition of Nodal signalling allows scale-invariant patterning.