Influenza NS1 directly modulates Hedgehog signaling during infection.

The multifunctional NS1 protein of influenza A viruses suppresses host cellular defense mechanisms and subverts other cellular functions. We report here on a new role for NS1 in modifying cell-cell signaling via the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway. Genetic epistasis experiments and FRET-FLIM assays in Drosophila suggest that NS1 interacts directly with the transcriptional mediator, Ci/Gli1. We further confirmed that Hh target genes are activated cell-autonomously in transfected human lung epithelial cells expressing NS1, and in infected mouse lungs. We identified a point mutation in NS1, A122V, that modulates this activity in a context-dependent fashion. When the A122V mutation was incorporated into a mouse-adapted influenza A virus, it cell-autonomously enhanced expression of some Hh targets in the mouse lung, including IL6, and hastened lethality. These results indicate that, in addition to its multiple intracellular functions, NS1 also modifies a highly conserved signaling pathway, at least in part via cell autonomous activities. We discuss how this new Hh modulating function of NS1 may influence host lethality, possibly through controlling cytokine production, and how these new insights provide potential strategies for combating infection.

LGP2 downregulates interferon production during infection with seasonal human influenza A viruses that activate interferon regulatory factor 3.

LGP2, a member of the RIG-I-like receptor family, lacks the amino-terminal caspase activation recruitment domains (CARDs) required for initiating the activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and interferon (IFN) transcription. The role of LGP2 in virus infection is controversial, and the only LGP2 experiments previously carried out with mammalian influenza A viruses employed an attenuated, mouse-adapted H1N1 A/PR/8/34 (PR8) virus that does not encode the NS1 protein. Here we determine whether LGP2 has a role during infection with wild-type, nonattenuated influenza A viruses that have circulated in the human population, specifically two types of seasonal influenza A viruses: (i) H3N2 and H1N1 viruses that activate IRF3 and IFN transcription and (ii) recent H1N1 viruses that block these two activations. In human cells infected with an H3N2 virus that activates IRF3, overexpression of LGP2 or its repressor domain decreased STAT1 activation and IFN-ß transcription approximately 10-fold. Overexpression of LGP2 also caused a 10-fold decrease of STAT1 activation during infection with other seasonal influenza A viruses that activate IRF3. Using LGP2(+/+) and LGP2(-/-) mouse cells, we show that endogenous LGP2 decreased IFN production during H3N2 virus infection 3- to 4-fold. In contrast, in both mouse and human cells infected with H1N1 viruses that do not activate IRF3, LGP2 had no detectable role. These results demonstrate that LGP2 downregulates IFN production during infection by seasonal influenza A viruses that activate IRF3 and IFN transcription. It is intriguing that LGP2, a host protein induced during influenza A virus infection, downregulates the host antiviral IFN response.

The virulence of 1997 H5N1 influenza viruses in the mouse model is increased by correcting a defect in their NS1 proteins.

The NS1 protein of human influenza A viruses binds the 30-kDa subunit of the cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF30), a protein required for 3' end processing of cellular pre-mRNAs, thereby inhibiting production of beta interferon (IFN-ß) mRNA. The NS1 proteins of pathogenic 1997 H5N1 viruses contain the CPSF30-binding site but lack the consensus amino acids at positions 103 and 106, F and M, respectively, that are required for the stabilization of CPSF30 binding, resulting in nonoptimal CPSF30 binding in infected cells. Here we have demonstrated that strengthening CPSF30 binding, by changing positions 103 and 106 in the 1997 H5N1 NS1 protein to the consensus amino acids, results in a remarkable 300-fold increase in the lethality of the virus in mice. Unexpectedly, this increase in virulence is not associated with increased lung pathology but rather is characterized by faster systemic spread of the virus, particularly to the brain, where increased replication and severe pathology occur. This increased spread is associated with increased cytokine and chemokine levels in extrapulmonary tissues. We conclude that strengthening CPSF30 binding by the NS1 protein of 1997 H5N1 viruses enhances virulence in mice by increasing the systemic spread of the virus from the lungs, particularly to the brain.

Influenza A virus strains that circulate in humans differ in the ability of their NS1 proteins to block the activation of IRF3 and interferon-ß transcription.

We demonstrate that influenza A virus strains that circulate in humans differ markedly in the ability of their NS1 proteins to block the activation of IRF3 and interferon-ß transcription. Strong activation occurs in cells infected with viruses expressing NS1 proteins of seasonal H3N2 and H2N2 viruses, whereas activation is blocked in cells infected with viruses expressing NS1 proteins of some, but not all seasonal H1N1 viruses. The NS1 proteins of the 2009 H1N1 and H5N1 viruses also block these activations. The difference in this NS1 function is mediated largely by the C-terminal region of the effector domain, which contains the only amino acid (K or E at position 196) that covaries with the functional difference. Further, we show that TRIM25 binds the NS1 protein whether or not IRF3 activation is blocked, demonstrating that binding of TRIM25 by the NS1 protein does not necessarily lead to the blocking of IRF3 activation.