Convalescent Plasmodium falciparum-specific seroreactivity does not correlate with paediatric malaria severity or Plasmodium antigen exposure.

BACKGROUND: Antibody immunity is thought to be essential to prevent severe Plasmodium falciparum infection, but the exact correlates of protection are unknown. Over time, children in endemic areas acquire non-sterile immunity to malaria that correlates with development of antibodies to merozoite invasion proteins and parasite proteins expressed on the surface of infected erythrocytes. RESULTS: A 1000 feature P. falciparum 3D7 protein microarray was used to compare P. falciparum-specific seroreactivity during acute infection and 30 days after infection in 23 children with uncomplicated malaria (UM) and 25 children with retinopathy-positive cerebral malaria (CM). All children had broad P. falciparum antibody reactivity during acute disease. IgM reactivity decreased and IgG reactivity increased in convalescence. Antibody reactivity to CIDR domains of "virulent" PfEMP1 proteins was low with robust reactivity to the highly conserved, intracellular ATS domain of PfEMP1 in both groups. Although children with UM and CM differed markedly in parasite burden and PfEMP1 exposure during acute disease, neither acute nor convalescent PfEMP1 seroreactivity differed between groups. Greater seroprevalence to a conserved Group A-associated ICAM binding extracellular domain was observed relative to linked extracellular CIDRα1 domains in both case groups. Pooled immune IgG from Malawian adults revealed greater reactivity to PfEMP1 than observed in children. CONCLUSIONS: Children with uncomplicated and cerebral malaria have similar breadth and magnitude of P. falciparum antibody reactivity. The utility of protein microarrays to measure serological recognition of polymorphic PfEMP1 antigens needs to be studied further, but the study findings support the hypothesis that conserved domains of PfEMP1 are more prominent targets of cross reactive antibodies than variable domains in children with symptomatic malaria. Protein microarrays represent an additional tool to identify cross-reactive Plasmodium antigens including PfEMP1 domains that can be investigated as strain-transcendent vaccine candidates.

Differential PfEMP1 expression is associated with cerebral malaria pathology.

Plasmodium falciparum is unique among human malarias in its ability to sequester in post-capillary venules of host organs. The main variant antigens implicated are the P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), which can be divided into three major groups (A-C). Our study was a unique examination of sequestered populations of parasites for genetic background and expression of PfEMP1 groups. We collected post-mortem tissue from twenty paediatric hosts with pathologically different forms of cerebral malaria (CM1 and CM2) and parasitaemic controls (PC) to directly examine sequestered populations of parasites in the brain, heart and gut. Use of two different techniques to investigate this question produced divergent results. By quantitative PCR, group A var genes were upregulated in all three organs of CM2 and PC cases. In contrast, in CM1 infections displaying high levels of sequestration but negligible vascular pathology, there was high expression of group B var. Cloning and sequencing of var transcript tags from the same samples indicated a uniformly low expression of group A-like var. Generally, within an organ sample, 1-2 sequences were expressed at dominant levels. 23% of var tags were detected in multiple patients despite the P. falciparum infections being genetically distinct, and two tags were observed in up to seven hosts each with high expression in the brains of 3-4 patients. This study is a novel examination of the sequestered parasites responsible for fatal cerebral malaria and describes expression patterns of the major cytoadherence ligand in three organ-derived populations and three pathological states.

Delayed acquisition of Plasmodium falciparum antigen-specific CD4(+) T cell responses in HIV-exposed uninfected Malawian children receiving daily cotrimoxazole prophylaxis.

BACKGROUND: Cotrimoxazole (CTX) prophylaxis, recommended in HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) children primarily against HIV-related opportunistic infections, has been shown to have some efficacy against Plasmodium falciparum malaria. The effects of CTX prophylaxis on the acquisition of P. falciparum antigen specific CD4(+) T cells-mediated immunity in HEU children is still not fully understood. METHODS: Peripheral blood was collected from HEU and HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) children at 6, 12 and 18 months of age. Proportion of CD4(+) T cells subsets were determined by immunophenotyping. P. falciparum antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells responses were measured by intracellular cytokine staining assay. RESULTS: There were no differences in the proportions of naïve, effector and memory CD4(+) T cell subsets between HEU and HUU children at all ages. There was a trend showing acquisition of P. falciparum-specific IFN-γ and TNF-producing CD4(+) T cells with age in both HUU and HEU children. There was, however, lower frequency of P. falciparum-specific IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells in HEU compared to HUU at 6 and 12 months, which normalized 6 months after stopping CTX prophylaxis. CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate that there is delayed acquisition of P. falciparum-specific IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells in HEU children on daily cotrimoxazole prophylaxis, which is evident at 6 and 12 months of age in comparison to HUU age-matched controls. However, whether this delayed acquisition of P. falciparum-specific IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells leads to higher risk to malaria disease remains unknown and warrants further investigation.

Proportions of CD4+, CD8+ and B cell subsets are not affected by exposure to HIV or to Cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in Malawian HIV-uninfected but exposed children.

BACKGROUND: As a result of successful PMTCT programs, children born from HIV-infected mothers are now effectively protected from contracting the infection. However, it is not well known whether in utero exposure to the virus and the subsequent exposure to Cotrimoxazole (CTX) prophylaxis affect the cell mediated immune system of the children. This observational prospective study was aimed at determining how CD4(+) T, CD8(+) T and B cell subsets varied in HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) children at different ages. METHODS: We recruited HEU and HIV-unexposed and uninfected (HUU) children from 6 months of age and followed them up until they were 18 months old. HEU children received daily CTX prophylaxis beginning at 6 weeks of age until when 12 months of age. Venous blood samples were collected 6 monthly and analysed for different subsets of CD8(+) T, B cells and totalCD4(+) T cells. RESULTS: At 6 months of age, HEU children had a lower percentage of total CD4(+) T cells compared to HUU children and a lower proportion of naïve CD8(+) T cells but higher percentage of effector memory CD8(+) T cells compared to HUU children. HEU and HUU children had similar proportions of all B cell subsets at all ages. CONCLUSIONS: The study showed that the subtle variations in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell subsets observed at 6 months do not last beyond 12 months of age, suggesting that HEU children have a robust cell-mediated immune system during first year of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This article report is not based on results of a controlled health-care intervention.

Sequential acquisition of T cells and antibodies to nontyphoidal Salmonella in Malawian children.

BACKGROUND: Salmonella Typhimurium (STm) remain a prominent cause of bacteremia in sub-Saharan Africa. Complement-fixing antibodies to STm develop by 2 years of age. We hypothesized that STm-specific CD4⁺ T cells develop alongside this process. METHODS: Eighty healthy Malawian children aged 0-60 months were recruited. STm-specific CD4⁺ T cells producing interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, and interleukin 2 were quantified using intracellular cytokine staining. Antibodies to STm were measured by serum bactericidal activity (SBA) assay, and anti-STm immunoglobulin G antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Between 2006 and 2011, STm bacteremias were detected in 449 children <5 years old. STm-specific CD4⁺ T cells were acquired in infancy, peaked at 14 months, and then declined. STm-specific SBA was detectable in newborns, declined in the first 8 months, and then increased to a peak at age 35 months. Acquisition of SBA correlated with acquisition of anti-STm-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) immunoglobulin G (r = 0.329 [95% confidence interval, .552-.062]; P = .01) but not anti-STm-outer membrane protein or anti-STm-flagellar protein (FliC). CONCLUSIONS: Acquisition of STm-specific CD4⁺ T cells in early childhood is consistent with early exposure to STm or cross-reactive protein antigens priming this T-cell development. STm-specific CD4⁺ T cells seem insufficient to protect against invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella disease, but sequential acquisition of SBA to STm LPS is associated with a decline in its incidence.

Prothrombotic autoantibodies targeting platelet factor 4/polyanion are associated with pediatric cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUNDFeatures of consumptive coagulopathy and thromboinflammation are prominent in cerebral malaria (CM). We hypothesized that thrombogenic autoantibodies contribute to a procoagulant state in CM.METHODSPlasma from children with uncomplicated malaria (UM) (n = 124) and CM (n = 136) was analyzed by ELISA for a panel of 8 autoantibodies including anti-platelet factor 4/polyanion (anti-PF4/P), anti-phospholipid, anti-phosphatidylserine, anti-myeloperoxidase, anti-proteinase 3, anti-dsDNA, anti-ß-2-glycoprotein I, and anti-cardiolipin. Plasma samples from individuals with nonmalarial coma (NMC) (n = 49) and healthy controls (HCs) (n = 56) were assayed for comparison. Associations with clinical and immune biomarkers were determined using univariate and logistic regression analyses.RESULTSMedian anti-PF4/P and anti-PS IgG levels were elevated in individuals with malaria infection relative to levels in HCs (P < 0.001) and patients with NMC (PF4/P: P < 0.001). Anti-PF4/P IgG levels were elevated in children with CM (median = 0.27, IQR: 0.19-0.41) compared with those with UM (median = 0.19, IQR: 0.14-0.22, P < 0.0001). Anti-PS IgG levels did not differ between patients with UM and those with CM (P = 0.39). When patients with CM were stratified by malaria retinopathy (Ret) status, the levels of anti-PF4/P IgG correlated negatively with the peripheral platelet count in patients with Ret+ CM (Spearman's rho [Rs] = 0.201, P = 0.04) and associated positively with mortality (OR = 15.2, 95% CI: 1.02-275, P = 0.048). Plasma from patients with CM induced greater platelet activation in an ex vivo assay relative to plasma from patients with UM (P = 0.02), and the observed platelet activation was associated with anti-PF4/P IgG levels (Rs= 0.293, P = 0.035).CONCLUSIONSThrombosis mediated by elevated anti-PF4/P autoantibodies may be one mechanism contributing to the clinical complications of CM.

Characterization of Lymphocyte Subsets in Lymph Node and Spleen Sections in Fatal Pediatric Malaria.

Secondary lymphoid tissues play a major role in the human immune response to P. falciparum infection. Previous studies have shown that acute falciparum malaria is associated with marked perturbations of the cellular immune system characterized by lowered frequency and absolute number of circulating T cell subsets. A temporary relocation of T cells, possibly by infiltration to secondary lymphoid tissue, or their permanent loss through apoptosis, are two proposed explanations for this observation. We conducted the present study to determine the phenotype of lymphocyte subsets that accumulate in the lymph node and spleen during acute stages of falciparum malaria infection in Malawian children, and to test the hypothesis that lymphocytes are relocated to lymphoid tissues during acute infection. We stained tissue sections from children who had died of the two common clinical forms of severe malaria in Malawi, namely severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 1) and cerebral malaria (CM, n = 3), and used tissue sections from pediatric patients who had died of non-malaria sepsis (n = 2) as controls. Both lymph node and spleen tissue (red pulp) sections from CM patients had higher percentages of T cells (CD4+ and CD8+) compared to the SMA patient. In the latter, we observed a higher percentage of CD20+ B cells in the lymph nodes compared to CM patients, whereas the opposite was observed in the spleen. Both lymph node and spleen sections from CM patients had increased percentages of CD69+ and CD45RO+ cells compared to tissue sections from the SMA patient. These results support the hypothesis that the relocation of lymphocytes to spleen and lymph node may contribute to the pan-lymphopenia observed in acute CM.

Lymphocyte subsets in healthy Malawians: implications for immunologic assessment of HIV infection in Africa.

BACKGROUND: CD4(+)T lymphocyte measurements are the most important indicator of mortality in HIV-infected individuals in resource-limited settings. There is currently a lack of comprehensive immunophenotyping data from African populations to guide the immunologic assessment of HIV infection. OBJECTIVE: To quantify variation in absolute and relative lymphocyte subsets with age in healthy Malawians. METHODS: Lymphocyte subsets in peripheral blood of 539 healthy HIV-uninfected Malawians stratified by age were enumerated by flow cytometry. RESULTS: B and T-lymphocyte and T-lymphocyte subset absolute concentrations peaked in early childhood then decreased to adult levels, whereas lymphocyte subset proportions demonstrated much less variation with age. Adult lymphocyte subsets were similar to those in developed countries. In contrast, high B-lymphocyte and CD8(+)T-lymphocyte levels among children under 2 years, relative to those in developed countries, resulted in low CD4(+)T-lymphocyte percentages that varied little between 0 and 5 years (35% to 39%). The CD4(+)T-lymphocyte percentages in 35% of healthy children under 1 year and 18% of children age 1 to 3 years were below the World Health Organization threshold defining immunodeficiency in HIV-infected children in resource-limited settings. Thirteen percent of healthy children under 18 months old had a CD4:CD8T-lymphocyte ratio <1.0, which is commonly associated with HIV infection. All immunologic parameters except absolute natural killer lymphocyte concentration varied significantly with age, and percentage and overall absolute CD4(+)T-lymphocyte counts were higher in females than males. CONCLUSION: Although lymphocyte subsets in Malawian adults are similar to those from developed countries, CD4(+)T-lymphocyte percentages in young children are comparatively low. These findings need to be considered when assessing the severity of HIV-related immunodeficiency in African children under 3 years.

Variation of B cell subsets with age in healthy Malawians.

Although a number of previous studies have shown that different lymphocyte subsets, including B cells, vary with age, how different B cell subsets vary with age in Malawian population has not been shown before. We recruited Malawian participants of different ages and analyzed their venous blood samples for different B cell subsets. We found that both percentage and absolute counts of B cells varied with age peaking in the 7 to 12 months age group. Proportion of naïve B cells was highest in neonates and decreased with age whereas the percentage of memory B cells was lowest in neonates and increased with age. When we zeroed in on the age band within which the proportion of B cells was highest, both classical and activated memory B cells increased with age and the naïve followed the opposite trend. These results provide additional knowledge in our understanding of the dynamics of B cell subsets in individuals of a specific ethnicity as they age.

The role of different components of the immune system against Plasmodium falciparum malaria: Possible contribution towards malaria vaccine development.

Plasmodium falciparum malaria still remains a major global public health challenge with over 220 million new cases and well over 400,000 deaths annually. Most of the deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa which bears 90 % of the malaria cases. Such high P. falciparum malaria-related morbidity and mortality rates pose a huge burden on the health and economic wellbeing of the countries affected. Lately, substantial gains have been made in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality through intense malaria control initiatives such as use of effective antimalarials, intensive distribution and use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), and implementation of massive indoor residual spraying (IRS) campaigns. However, these gains are being threatened by widespread resistance of the parasite to antimalarials, and the vector to insecticides. Over the years the use of vaccines has proven to be the most reliable, cost-effective and efficient method for controlling the burden and spread of many infectious diseases, especially in resource poor settings with limited public health infrastructure. Nonetheless, this had not been the case with malaria until the most promising malaria vaccine candidate, RTS,S/AS01, was approved for pilot implementation programme in three African countries in 2015. This was regarded as the most important breakthrough in the fight against malaria. However, RTS,S/AS01 has been found to have some limitations, the main ones being low efficacy in certain age groups, poor immunogenicity and need for almost three boosters to attain a reasonable efficacy. Thus, the search for a more robust and effective malaria vaccine still continues and a better understanding of naturally acquired immune responses to the various stages, including the transmissible stages of the parasite, could be crucial in rational vaccine design. This review therefore compiles what is currently known about the basic biology of P. falciparum and the natural malaria immune response against malaria and progress made towards vaccine development.

Performance of molecular methods for the detection of Salmonella in human stool specimens.

Background: The relationship between asymptomatic Salmonella exposure within the gastrointestinal tract and Salmonella bacteraemia is poorly understood, in part due to the low sensitivity of stool culture, and the lack of validated molecular diagnostic tests for the detection of Salmonella in stool. The study aimed to determine a reliable molecular diagnostic test for Salmonella in stool specimens. Methods: We optimized an in-house monoplex real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of Salmonella TTR and InvA genes in stool by including a selenite broth pre-culture step for Salmonella before DNA extraction, and validated their specificity against other local common pathogens. Then we assessed their performance  against a well-validated multiplex PCR targeting the same TTR and InvA genes, and against stool culture using clinical stool specimens collected from a cohort of 50 asymptomatic healthy Malawian children that were sampled at 1-month intervals over a period of 12 months. We employed a latent Markov model to estimate the specificities and sensitivities of PCR methods. Results: TTR and InvA primers were both able to detect all the different Salmonella serovars tested, and had superior limits of detection if DNA was extracted after selenite pre-culture. TTR sensitivity and specificity for monoplex-PCR were (99.53%, 95.46%) and for multiplex-PCR (90.30%, 99.30%) respectively. InvA specificity and specificity for using monoplex-PCR was (95.06%, 90.31%) and multiplex-PCRs (89.41%, 98.00%) respectively. Sensitivity and specificity for standard stool culture were 62.88% and 99.99% respectively. Culture showed the highest PPV (99.73%) and mono-TTR had the highest NPV (99.67%). Conclusion: Test methods demonstrated high concordance although stool culture and monoplexed TTR primers had superior specificity and sensitivity respectively. The use of selenite pre-enrichment step increased Salmonella detection rate. Taken together, molecular detection methods used here could be used to reveal the true extent of both asymptomatic and symptomatic Salmonella exposure events.

Plasma cell-free DNA predicts pediatric cerebral malaria severity.

BACKGROUNDPrediction of adverse outcomes in cerebral malaria (CM) is difficult. We hypothesized that cell-free DNA (cfDNA) levels would facilitate identification of severe and potentially fatal CM cases.METHODSIn this retrospective study, plasma from Malawian children with CM (n = 134), uncomplicated malaria (UM, n = 77), and healthy controls (HC, n = 60) was assayed for cfDNA using a fluorescence assay. Host and parasite cfDNA was measured by quantitative PCR. Immune markers were determined by ELISA, Luminex, or cytometric bead array.RESULTSTotal cfDNA increased with malaria severity (HC versus UM, P < 0.001; HC versus CM, P < 0.0001; UM versus CM, P < 0.0001), was elevated in retinopathy-positive (Ret+) CM relative to Ret- CM (7.66 versus 5.47 ng/µL, P = 0.027), and differentiated Ret+ fatal cases from survivors (AUC 0.779; P < 0.001). cfDNA levels in patients with non-malarial febrile illness (NMF, P = 0.25) and non-malarial coma (NMC, P = 0.99) were comparable with UM. Host DNA, rather than parasite DNA, was the major cfDNA contributor (UM, 268 versus 67 pg/µL; CM, 2824 versus 463 pg/µL). Host and parasite cfDNA distinguished CM by retinopathy (host, AUC 0.715, P = 0.0001; parasite, AUC 0.745, P = 0.0001), but only host cfDNA distinguished fatal cases (AUC 0.715, P = 0.0001). Total cfDNA correlated with neutrophil markers IL-8 (rs = 0.433, P < 0.0001) and myeloperoxidase (rs = 0.683, P < 0.0001).CONCLUSIONQuantifying plasma cfDNA is a simple assay useful in identifying children at risk for fatal outcome and has promise as a point-of-care assay. Elevated cfDNA suggests a link with host inflammatory pathways in fatal CM.FUNDINGNIH NCATS (AK), Burroughs-Wellcome (AK), and National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (SJR).

HIV infection compounds the lymphopenia associated with cerebral malaria in Malawian children.

AIM: Cerebral malaria (CM), unlike severe malarial anemia (SMA), has previously been characterized by pan-lymphopenia that normalizes in convalescence, while HIV infection is associated with depletion of CD4+ T cells. In this study, we investigate whether HIV infection in Malawian children exacerbates the pan-lymphopenia associated with CM. METHODS: We investigated the absolute and percentage lymphocyte-subset counts and their activation and memory status in Malawian children presenting with either CM who were HIV-uninfected (n=29), HIV-infected (n=9), or SMA who were HIV-uninfected (n=30) and HIV-infected (n=5) in comparison with HIV-uninfected children without malaria (n=42) and HIV-infected children without malaria (n=4). RESULTS: HIV-infected CM cases had significantly lower absolute counts of T cells (P=0.006), CD4+ T cells (P=0.0008), and B cells (P=0.0014) than HIV-uninfected CM cases, and significantly lower percentages of CD4+ T cells than HIV-uninfected CM cases (P=0.005). HIV-infected SMA cases had significantly lower percentages of CD4+ T cells (P=0.001) and higher CD8+ T cells (P=0.003) in comparison with HIV-uninfected SMA cases. HIV-infected SMA cases had higher proportions of activated T cells (P=0.003) expressing CD69 than HIV-uninfected SMA cases. CONCLUSION: HIV infection compounds the perturbation of acute CM and SMA on lymphocytes, exacerbating subset-specific lymphopenia in CM and increasing activation status in SMA, potentially exacerbating host immunocompromise.

Meta-analysis of Plasmodium falciparum var Signatures Contributing to Severe Malaria in African Children and Indian Adults.

The clinical presentation of severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria differs between children and adults, but the mechanistic basis for this remains unclear. Contributing factors to disease severity include total parasite biomass and the diverse cytoadhesive properties mediated by the polymorphic var gene parasite ligand family displayed on infected erythrocytes. To explore these factors, we performed a multicohort analysis of the contribution of var expression and parasite biomass to severe malaria in two previously published pediatric cohorts in Tanzania and Malawi and an adult cohort in India. Machine learning analysis revealed independent and complementary roles for var adhesion types and parasite biomass in adult and pediatric severe malaria and showed that similar var profiles, including upregulation of group A and DC8 var, predict severe malaria in adults and children. Among adults, patients with multiorgan complications presented infections with significantly higher parasite biomass without significant differences in var adhesion types. Conversely, pediatric patients with specific complications showed distinct var signatures. Cerebral malaria patients showed broadly increased expression of var genes, in particular group A and DC8 var, while children with severe malaria anemia were classified based on high transcription of DC8 var only. This study represents the first large multisite meta-analysis of var expression, and it demonstrates the presence of common var profiles in severe malaria patients of different ages across distant geographical sites, as well as syndrome-specific disease signatures. The complex associations between parasite biomass, var adhesion type, and clinical presentation revealed here represent the most comprehensive picture so far of the relationship between cytoadhesion, parasite load, and clinical syndrome.IMPORTANCEP. falciparum malaria can cause multiple disease complications that differ by patient age. Previous studies have attempted to address the roles of parasite adhesion and biomass in disease severity; however, these studies have been limited to single geographical sites, and there is limited understanding of how parasite adhesion and biomass interact to influence disease manifestations. In this meta-analysis, we compared parasite disease determinants in African children and Indian adults. This study demonstrates that parasite biomass and specific subsets of var genes are independently associated with detrimental outcomes in both childhood and adult malaria. We also explored how parasite var adhesion types and biomass play different roles in the development of specific severe malaria pathologies, including childhood cerebral malaria and multiorgan complications in adults. This work represents the largest study to date of the role of both var adhesion types and biomass in severe malaria.

Immunological bases of increased susceptibility to invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella infection in children with malaria and anaemia.

Malaria and anaemia are key underlying factors for iNTS disease in African children. Knowledge of clinical and epidemiological risk-factors for iNTS disease has not been paralleled by an in-depth knowledge of the immunobiology of the disease. Herein, we review human and animal studies on mechanisms of increased susceptibility to iNTS in children.

HIV infection has a profound effect on hematological factors but not on electrolyte profile of Malawian adults presenting with uncomplicated malaria and severe malaria.

AIM: Although malaria and HIV infections independently affect the electrolyte and hematologic profiles, little is known of how these profiles are affected in individuals coinfected with malaria and HIV. We therefore conducted this study to investigate the electrolyte and hematologic profiles of Malawian adults presenting with either uncomplicated malaria (UM), severe malaria (SM), and those presenting with HIV and UM or HIV and SM. METHODS: Study participants were recruited at Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, and malaria infection was confirmed by rapid diagnostic test and malaria slides, and full blood count, HIV, and wet chemistries were analyzed. RESULTS: Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride levels of all 4 study groups were similar to those of healthy controls. Both HIV-infected groups (UM and SM) had lower red blood cell counts and lower hemoglobin concentration than the reference range. Platelet counts were lower in both HIV-uninfected SM cases (64×109/L) and in the HIV-infected SM cases (66×109/L) compared to the reference range (115-290×109/L). HIV- UM cases had higher proportion and absolute counts of neutrophils and white blood cell counts compared to the HIV+ UM cases. CONCLUSION: HIV infection did not affect the electrolyte profile of Malawian adults presenting with UM or SM but had an effect on red blood cells, Hb concentration, neutrophils, and platelet counts.

Cytokine Profiles in Malawian Children Presenting with Uncomplicated Malaria, Severe Malarial Anemia, and Cerebral Malaria.

Proinflammatory cytokines are involved in clearance of Plasmodium falciparum, and very high levels of these cytokines have been implicated in the pathogenesis of severe malaria. In order to determine how cytokines vary with disease severity and syndrome, we enrolled Malawian children presenting with cerebral malaria (CM), severe malarial anemia (SMA), and uncomplicated malaria (UCM) and healthy controls. We analyzed serum cytokine concentrations in acute infection and in convalescence. With the exception of interleukin 5 (IL-5), cytokine concentrations were highest in acute CM, followed by SMA, and were only mildly elevated in UCM. Cytokine concentrations had fallen to control levels when remeasured at 1 month of convalescence in all three clinical malaria groups. Ratios of IL-10 to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and of IL-10 to IL-6 followed a similar pattern. Children presenting with acute CM had significantly higher concentrations of TNF-α (P < 0.001), interferon gamma (IFN-γ) (P = 0.0019), IL-2 (P = 0.0004), IL-6 (P < 0.001), IL-8 (P < 0.001), and IL-10 (P < 0.001) in sera than healthy controls. Patients with acute CM had significantly higher concentrations of IL-6 (P < 0.001) and IL-10 (P = 0.0003) than those presenting with acute SMA. Our findings are consistent with the concept that high levels of proinflammatory cytokines, despite high levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, could contribute to the pathogenesis of CM.

Leukocyte counts and lymphocyte subsets in relation to pregnancy and HIV infection in Malawian women.

PROBLEM: We investigated leukocyte and lymphocyte subsets in HIV-infected or HIV-uninfected, pregnant or non-pregnant Malawian women to explore whether HIV infection and pregnancy may act synergistically to impair cellular immunity. METHOD OF STUDY: We recruited 54 pregnant and 48 non-pregnant HIV-uninfected women and 24 pregnant and 20 non-pregnant HIV-infected Malawian women. We compared peripheral blood leukocyte and lymphocyte subsets between women in the four groups. RESULTS: Parturient HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women had more neutrophils (each P<.0001), but fewer lymphocytes (P<.0001; P=.0014) than non-pregnant women. Both groups had fewer total T cells (P<.0001; P=.002) and CD8+ T cells (P<.0001; P=.014) than non-pregnant women. HIV-uninfected parturient women had fewer CD4+ and γδ T cells, B and NK cells (each P<.0001) than non-pregnant women. Lymphocyte subset percentages were not affected by pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Malawian women at parturition have an increased total white cell count due to neutrophilia and an HIV-unrelated pan-lymphopenia.

Age- and sex-related changes in hematological parameters in healthy Malawians.

AIM: The aim of the study was to determine how values for white blood cell (WBC) counts, hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular volume (mcv), and platelet counts vary with age and sex in healthy Malawians. METHODS: We recruited 660 (316 male and 344 female) participants in 12 different age groups. An ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-anticoagulated blood sample collected from each participant was analyzed using a hematological analyzer. RESULTS: WBC counts decreased with age with the lowest counts observed in the 20 to <60 years old group. Median WBC counts for 20 to <60 year old females (5.9×109/L) were significantly higher than those for men (4.7×109/L; p=0.015) of the same age. Hb and Hct increased between 5 and 10 years in males and 10 and 15 years in females to adult levels. Males aged 5 to <10 years had significantly higher Hb (13.05 g/dL) and Hct (42.50%) compared to females of the same age (10.40 g/dL and 32.55%, respectively; p<0.0001 for both parameters). Platelet counts in males, which were highest between 3 and 5 years (376×109/L), decreased to lowest counts among 5 to <10 year olds (238×109/L), while in females these decreased from 402×109/L in 6 to <10 years olds to 226×109/L in 10 to <15 year olds. mcv median values were high in neonates reaching a nadir at 13-18 months and then increased throughout life. Females aged 0 to <6 months had significantly higher mcv values (81.85 fL) than males of the same age (69.3 fL; p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: This study provides hematological values according to age and sex that are suitable for reference use in studies among Malawian subjects.