Redundancy Analysis to Reduce the High-Dimensional Near-Infrared Spectral Information to Improve the Authentication of Olive Oil.

The high price of marketing of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) requires the introduction of cost-effective and sustainable procedures that facilitate its authentication, avoiding fraud in the sector. Contrary to classical techniques (such as chromatography), near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy does not need derivatization of the sample with proper integration of separated peaks and is more reliable, rapid, and cost-effective. In this work, principal component analysis (PCA) and then redundancy analysis (RDA)─which can be seen as a constrained version of PCA─are used to summarize the high-dimensional NIR spectral information. Then PCA and RDA factors are contemplated as explanatory variables in models to authenticate oils from qualitative or quantitative analysis, in particular, in the prediction of the percentage of EVOO in blended oils or in the classification of EVOO or other vegetable oils (sunflower, hazelnut, corn, or linseed oil) by the use of some machine learning algorithms. As a conclusion, the results highlight the potential of RDA factors in prediction and classification because they appreciably improve the results obtained from PCA factors in calibration and validation.

Improving the prediction of the fatty acid profile of olive oils by considering statistically relevant harvests and agro-climatic variables.

BACKGROUND: Fatty acids are the major components in extra virgin olive oil, and they are considered as a quality parameter to its authentication. As fraudulent practices are the most important problem in this sector, fast, reliable and cost-effective techniques, such as Raman spectroscopy, have been successfully applied, in combination with chemometrics, to determine the fatty acid profile of oils. RESULTS: The huge amount of information provided by Raman spectra is reduced in a few orthogonal components of principal component analysis (PCA). The goodness-of-fit of the statistical models including only these PCA factors is considerably increased by introducing dummy variables, associated with the harvest, and some agro-climatic variables (temperature, humidity, wind speed, radiation, precipitation and evapotranspiration). Many of these additional variables are statistically relevant in models using either the global sample or subsamples of Andalusian provinces or olive varieties. CONCLUSIONS: The regression models using only Raman spectral information are clearly improved by the consideration of harvesting time and agro-climatic data, a useful result as trade standard applying to olive oils limits values for disaggregated fatty acids to authenticate olive oils. Nevertheless, the effect (or the statistical relevance) of these variables depends on the specific type of fatty acid, geographical region (province) or olive variety. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Microemulsion and Sol-Gel Synthesized ZrO2-MgO Catalysts for the Liquid-Phase Dehydration of Xylose to Furfural.

Two series of catalysts were prepared by sol-gel and microemulsion synthetic procedure (SG and ME, respectively). Each series includes both pure Mg and Zr solids as well as Mg-Zr mixed solids with 25%, 50% and 75% nominal Zr content. The whole set of catalysts was characterized from thermal, structural and surface chemical points of view and subsequently applied to the liquid-phase xylose dehydration to furfural. Reactions were carried out in either a high-pressure autoclave or in an atmospheric pressure multi-reactor under a biphasic (organic/water) reaction mixture. Butan-2-ol and toluene were essayed as organic solvents. Catalysts prepared by microemulsion retained part of the surfactant used in the synthetic procedure, mainly associated with the Zr part of the solid. The MgZr-SG solid presented the highest surface acidity while the Mg3Zr-SG one exhibited the highest surface basicity among mixed systems. Xylose dehydration in the high-pressure system and with toluene/water solvent mixture led to the highest furfural yield. Moreover, the yield of furfural increases with the Zr content of the catalyst. Therefore, the catalysts constituted of pure ZrO2 (especially Zr-SG) are the most suitable to carry out the process under study although MgZr mixed solids could be also suitable for overall processes with additional reaction steps.

Pt-TiO2 Systems for Enhanced Hydrogen Production from Glycerol: Direct vs Sequential Incorporation Through Photodeposition.

Pt-TiO2 systems are the most widely used photocatalysts in the production of green hydrogen from glycerol photoreforming. To incorporate metals on the surface of materials, photodeposition is the most used method because it employs mild conditions. However, despite its use, there are some parameters that have not been deeply studied, such as the appropriate metal loading and the method itself, to obtain a better dispersion of Pt. In this work, six Pt-TiO2 catalysts were synthesized by a classical photodeposition method employing UV radiation. The studied Pt wt.% range was 0.15-0.60 wt.%, being incorporated in one step or in subsequent ones. HRTEM analyses showed that both methods allowed a homogeneous distribution of Pt, and in both, the particle size was around 2.3-3.6 nm, increasing with metal loading. The photocatalytic activity of materials was tested in glycerol photoreforming under UV radiation, and the 0.45 wt.% Pt-containing solid that had been synthesized in one step was the one that allowed the highest hydrogen production. This might suggest that around 0.40% is the appropriate metal loading for hydrogen production under these conditions and that incorporating the desired metal percentage in one step is the most efficient method in terms of energy and time savings.

Synthesis of Fe-TiO2 and Cu-TiO2 Based Materials by Olive Leaves Biotemplating-Application to Hydrogen Production from Glycerol Photoreforming.

Hydrogen production is mainly based on the use of fossil fuels, but currently, many alternative routes are being developed, among which the photo-reforming of oxygenated organic compounds stands out. Recently, several studies have been carried out in order to develop new techniques to create bio-inspired TiO2 structures. One of these is 'biotemplating', a process that replicates a biological system in an inorganic TiO2-based structure. In this study, olive by-products-olive leaves-are valorized as a biotemplate for the synthesis of new Fe-TiO2- and Cu-TiO2-based photocatalysts with the aim of improving the replication of the leaf structure and enhancing hydrogen photoproduction. In conclusion, the incorporation of iron and copper decreases the band gap and increases the energetic disorder at the band edges. Moreover, it is verified by SEM and TEM that the metals are not found forming particles but are introduced into the formed TiO2 structure. The accuracy of the internal and external structure replication is improved with the incorporation of Fe in the synthesis, while the incorporation of Cu substantially improves the production of hydrogen, which is multiplied 14 times under UV light and 6 times under sunlight, as compared to a pure TiO2 structure.

Biochars from Olive Stones as Carbonaceous Support in Pt/TiO2-Carbon Photocatalysts and Application in Hydrogen Production from Aqueous Glycerol Photoreforming.

Several biochars were synthesized from olive stones and used as supports for TiO2, as an active semiconductor, and Pt as a co-catalyst (Pt/TiO2-PyCF and Pt/TiO2-AC). A third carbon-supported photocatalyst was prepared from commercial mesoporous carbon (Pt/TiO2-MCF). Moreover, a Pt/TiO2 solid based on Evonik P25 was used as a reference. The biochars used as supports transferred, to a large extent, their physical and chemical properties to the final photocatalysts. The synthesized catalysts were tested for hydrogen production from aqueous glycerol photoreforming. The results indicated that a mesoporous nature and small particle size of the photocatalyst lead to better H2 production. The analysis of the operational reaction conditions revealed that the H2 evolution rate was not proportional to the mass of the photocatalyst used, since, at high photocatalyst loading, the hydrogen production decreased because of the light scattering and reflection phenomena that caused a reduction in the light penetration depth. When expressed per gram of TiO2, the activity of Pt/TiO2-PyCF is almost 4-times higher than that of Pt/TiO2 (1079 and 273 mmol H2/gTiO2, respectively), which points to the positive effect of an adequate dispersion of a TiO2 phase on a carbonaceous support, forming a highly dispersed and homogeneously distributed titanium dioxide phase. Throughout a 12 h reaction period, the H2 production rate progressively decreases, while the CO2 production rate increases continuously. This behavior is compatible with an initial period when glycerol dehydrogenation to glyceraldehyde and/or dihydroxyacetone and hydrogen predominates, followed by a period in which comparatively slower C-C cleavage reactions begin to occur, thus generating both H2 and CO2.

A nuclear magnetic resonance (1H and 13C) and isotope ratio mass spectrometry (delta13C, delta2H and delta18O) study of Andalusian olive oils.

We have determined delta(13)C, delta(2)H and delta(18)O isotopic abundances in Andalusian olive oils. In addition, the fatty acid composition and the distribution of isomers at positions 1,3 and 2 of glycerol were determined by (1)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, respectively. Isotopic results obtained for four series of oil samples extracted from olives harvested in the 2004/05 and 2005/06 seasons are discussed in terms of olive variety, ripeness, geographical origin, fatty acid composition and growing altitude. A distinction was also established between olives grown in irrigated and in dry land by studying selected samples of the previous series and others from the 2005/06, 2006/07, 2007/08 and 2008/09 seasons. The results showed that olive ripeness does not influence the abundance of any of the three isotopes studied. On the other hand, the olive variety influences the abundance of the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes, and also, less markedly, that of carbon. No clear-cut effect of height or latitude on isotope values is observed, probably because the olive variety also changes with height and latitude, thus masking such influences. The oil samples from dryland-grown olives had increased delta(13)C values relative to irrigation-grown olives. In addition, no definite relationship appears to exist between isotope distribution and fatty acid composition. Finally, oil samples from olives harvested in the 2005/06 season in Italy could be distinguished from those from Spain in terms of their isotopic values (delta(2)H mainly).

Olive Leaves as Biotemplates for Enhanced Solar-Light Harvesting by a Titania-Based Solid.

Olive leaves (by-product from olive oil production in olive mills) were used as biotemplates to synthesize a titania-based artificial olive leaf (AOL). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of AOL showed the successful replication of trichomes and internal structure channels present in olive leaves. The BET surface area of AOL was 52 m2·g-1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectra revealed that the resulting solid was in the predominantly-anatase crystalline form (7.5 nm average particle size). Moreover, the synthesis led to a red-shift in light absorption as compared to reference anatase (gap energies of 2.98 and 3.2 eV, respectively). The presence of surface defects (as evidenced by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, EPR) and doping elements (e.g., 1% nitrogen, observed by elemental analysis and XPS) could account for that. AOL was preliminarily tested as a catalyst for hydrogen production through glycerol photoreforming and exhibited an activity 64% higher than reference material Evonik P25 under solar irradiation and 144% greater under ultraviolet radiation, (under voltage) UV.

Functional approach and agro-climatic information to improve the estimation of olive oil fatty acid content from near-infrared data.

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is very appreciated by its taste, flavor, and benefits for health, and so, it has a high price of commercialization. This fact makes it necessary to provide reliable and cost-effective analytical procedures, such as near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, to analyze its traceability and purity, in combination with chemometrics. Fatty acids profile of EVOO, considered as a quality parameter, is estimated, firstly, from NIR data and, secondly, by adding agro-climatic information. NIR and agro-climatic data sets are summarized by using principal component analysis (PCA) and treated by both scalar and functional approaches. The corresponding PCA and FPCA are progressively introduced in regression models, whose goodness of fit is evaluated by the dimensionless root-mean-square error. In general, SFAs, MUFAs, and PUFAs (and disaggregated fatty acids) estimations are improved by adding agro-climatic besides NIR information (mainly, temperature or evapotranspiration) and considering a functional point of view for both NIR and agro-climatic data.

Hydrogen Production through Glycerol Photoreforming on TiO2/Mesoporous Carbon: Influence of the Synthetic Method.

This article explores the effect of the synthetic method of titanium dioxide (TiO2)/C composites (physical mixture and the water-assisted/unassisted sol-gel method) on their photocatalytic activity for hydrogen production through glycerol photoreforming. The article demonstrates that, apart from a high surface area of carbon and the previous activation of its surface to favor titania incorporation, the appropriate control of titania formation is crucial. In this sense, even though the amount of incorporated titania was limited by the saturation of carbon surface groups (in our case, ca. 10 wt.% TiO2), the sol-gel process without water addition seemed to be the best method, ensuring the formation of small homogeneously-distributed anatase crystals on mesoporous carbon. In this way, a ca. 110-fold increase in catalyst activity compared to Evonik P25 (expressed as hydrogen micromole per grams of titania) was achieved.

Influence of Boron, Tungsten and Molybdenum Modifiers on Zirconia Based Pt Catalyst for Glycerol Valorization.

The influence of boron, tungsten and molybdenum modifiers on zirconia-based Pt catalyst was studied for glycerol valorization. Zirconia modified supports were prepared by impregnation of ZrO2 with either boric, silicontungstic or phosphomolybdic acids to obtain supports with enhanced Brönsted acidic properties. The modified supports were subsequently impregnated with chloroplatinic acid to obtain Pt-based catalysts. Pt incorporation resulted in the increase in Lewis acidity of the solids, being more significant for the Pt//W/ZrO2 catalyst. Reduced Pt catalysts were tested for the liquid-phase glycerol hydrogenolysis, observing a synergistic effect between catalyst acid sites and metal function that proved to be crucial in glycerol hydrogenolysis. The Pt//W/ZrO2 catalyst was the most active catalyst in this reaction, being the only leading to 1,3-PDO (45% sel., 160 °C) while Pt//Mo/ZrO2 is the best option for 1,2-PDO (49% sel., 180 °C). Reusability studies carried out for Pt//W/ZrO2 showed that catalytic activity dropped after the first use, remaining constant for the second and subsequent ones. Selectivity to reaction products also changes during reuses. Therefore, the selectivity to 1,2 PDO increases in the first reuse in detriment to the selectivity to n-propanol whereas the selectivity to 1,3-PDO remains constant along the uses. This behavior could be associated to the lixiviation of W species and/or catalyst fouling during reaction runs.

XPS evidence for structure-performance relationship in selective hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde to crotyl alcohol on platinum systems supported on natural phosphates.

Natural phosphates are an important natural resource in Morocco, which needs to be valorised. They can be used not only as fertilisers but also as catalysts. Here, we report for the first time on its use as support for platinum and the application of the resulting systems to the liquid-phase selective hydrogenation of an α,ß-unsaturated carbonyl compound (crotonaldehyde) to the corresponding unsaturated alcohol (crotyl alcohol), a process of interest in the production of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and fragrances. Catalytic results are related to the surface solid structure as determined by XPS. Therefore, the most active systems showed new surface interactions as evidenced by the appearance of new P, O, Ca, F and C peaks and the shift of Pt ones to lower binding energies. Further modification of the most active system with FeCl(2) led to 70% selectivity to crotyl alcohol at 34% conversion.

A study on the potential application of natural phosphate in photocatalytic processes.

In an attempt at increasing surface area of the resulting solids, different titanium-based systems were synthesized on natural phosphate through the sol-gel process using diverse ageing conditions (reflux, magnetic stirring, sonication or microwaves) and tested for gas-phase selective photooxidation of propan-2-ol. The best results were obtained for the system aged under ultrasounds which was ascribed to its lower band-gap energy. Moreover, the synthesis of TiO(2) on natural phosphate seemed to produce retardation in crystallization as well as a change in titanium and phosphorus electronic environments (as determined by XPS) which in the case of the sonicated system resulted in an improved catalytic behavior as compared to pure titania. All in all, the present piece of research shows that provided that its surface area can be increased natural phosphate can be used as support for a photocatalytic active phase thus widening the scope of its application.

Liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring for optimal selection of transitions to evaluate nutraceuticals from olive-tree materials.

Optimal transitions have been selected for the identification and quantitation of the most interesting hydrophilic biophenols in extracts from olive-tree materials, which are of interest because of their nutraceutical properties. The tested materials were extra virgin olive oil, waste from oil production (known as alperujo), and olive-tree materials such as leaves, small branches and fruit stones. The identification and determination steps of the target biophenols are based on liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) with a triple quadrupole (QQQ) mass detector. The interface between the chromatograph and the QQQ was an electrospray ionization source operated in the negative ion mode. Highly selective identification of the biophenols was confirmed by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) using the most representative transitions from the precursor ion to the different product ions. Quantitative MS/MS analysis was carried out by optimization and selection of the most sensitive transition for each analyte, which resulted in estimated detection limits of 5.10 to 11.65 ng/mL for the extracts. The biophenols were extracted from the tested samples by different methods: liquid-liquid extraction for virgin olive oil, microwave-assisted leaching for olive leaves, branches and stones, and pressurized liquid leaching for alperujo. This study provides valuable information about the most suitable source for the isolation of each nutraceutical biophenol and enables us to obtain a complete profile of them in Olea Europaea.

Oxygen-18 measurement of Andalusian olive oils by continuous flow pyrolysis/isotope ratio mass spectrometry.

We report a method for the determination of delta(18)O isotopic abundance in olive oils. The results obtained by applying the method to various Andalusian oil samples obtained in the 2004/05 and 2005/06 seasons are discussed in relation to olive variety, geographical origin, climate and ripeness index. Application of the method to samples of assured varietal purity exposed the influence of olive variety and origin but not of the ripeness index. The delta(18)O values for the 2005/06 season are higher on average than those obtained in the colder 2004/05 season. Results obtained for samples of the Picual and Hojiblanca varieties in Córdoba and Málaga in the 2005/06 season suggest a correlation between enrichment in heavy isotopes and latitude whereas no clear-cut effect of altitude was observed.