Clinical nutrition in primary care: ESPEN position paper.

Primary care healthcare professionals (PCHPs) are pivotal in managing chronic diseases and present a unique opportunity for nutrition-related disease prevention. However, the active involvement of PCHPs in nutritional care is limited, influenced by factors like insufficient education, lack of resources, and time constraints. In this position paper The European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) promotes the active engagement of PCHPs in nutritional care. We emphasize the importance of early detection of malnutrition by screening and diagnosis, particularly in all individuals presenting with risk factors such as older age, chronic disease, post-acute disease conditions and after hospitalization for any cause. ESPEN proposes a strategic roadmap to empower PCHPs in clinical nutrition, focusing on education, tools, and multidisciplinary collaboration. The aim is to integrate nutrition into medical curricula, provide simple screening tools for primary care, and establish referral pathways to address malnutrition systematically. In conclusion, we urge for collaboration with PCHP organizations to raise awareness, enhance nutrition skills, facilitate dietitian accessibility, establish multidisciplinary teams, and promote referral pathways, thereby addressing the underestimated clinical challenge of malnutrition in primary care.

Characteristics and Outcomes of COVID-19 Cancer Patients Admitted to a Portuguese Intensive Care Unit: A Case-Control Study.

Cancer patients appear to be a vulnerable group in the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to compare clinical characteristics and outcomes of cancer and non-cancer patients with COVID-19 admitted to the ICU. All COVID-19 cancer patients (cases) admitted to a Portuguese ICU between March 2020 and January 2021 were included and matched on age, sex and comorbidities with COVID-19 non-cancer patients (controls); 29 cases and 29 controls were enrolled. Initial symptoms were similar between the two groups. Anemia was significantly superior among cases (76% vs. 45%; p = 0.031). Invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) need at ICU admission was significantly higher among cases (48% vs. 7%; odds ratio (OR) = 12.600, 95% CI: 2.517-63.063, p = 0.002), but there were no differences for global need for IMV during all-length of ICU stay and mortality rates. In a multivariate model of logistic regression, the risk of IMV need at ICU admission among cases remained statistically significant (adjusted OR = 14.036, 95% CI: 1.337-153.111, p = 0.028). Therefore, compared to critical non-cancer patients, critical cancer patients with COVID-19 had an increased risk for IMV need at the moment of ICU admission, however, not for IMV need during all-length of ICU stay or death.

The Caloric Necessities of Critical Care Patients During the First Week of Admission.

INTRODUCTION:  The nutritional needs of critically ill patients have been the subject of intense controversy. In accordance with international guidelines, it is advocated to optimize a nutritional intake based on the following recommendation: 25-30 kcal/kg body weight per day. However, there still are authors who recommend permissive underfeeding in the first week of hospitalization. Nevertheless, energy expenditure (EE) and necessity are influenced by the catabolic phase of critical illness, which may vary over time on a patient and from patient to patient. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to assess if the energy needs of critically ill patients admitted in our intensive care unit (ICU) in the first week of hospitalization are in line with those recommended by the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) international guidelines. METHODS: A prospective cross-sectional study was carried out from September to December 2019. The energy needs were evaluated by indirect calorimetry and by the Harris-Benedict equation. Stress variables were evaluated, namely, the type of pathology, hemodynamic support, sedation, temperature, sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score, and state at discharge. RESULTS: Forty-six patients were included in this study, with an average energy expenditure by indirect calorimetry of 19.22 ± 4.67 kcal/kg/day. The energy expenditure was less than 20 kcal/kg/day in 63% of the measurements. The concordance rate did not show the relationship between the Harris-Benedict equation and the values of indirect calorimetry. Stress variables were analyzed, with the SOFA score as the only variable with values close to statistical significance. CONCLUSION: In our ICU, the energy needs of critically ill patients in the first week of hospitalization are lower than the intake recommended by the guidelines.

Prevalence of Nutritional Risk at Admission in Internal Medicine Wards in Portugal: The Multicentre Cross-Sectional ANUMEDI Study.

INTRODUCTION: Disease-related undernutrition is highly prevalent and requires timely intervention. However, identifying undernutrition often relies on physician judgment. As Internal Medicine wards are the backbone of the hospital setting, insight into the prevalence of nutritional risk in this population is essential. We aimed to determine the prevalence of nutritional risk in Internal Medicine wards, to identify its correlates, and to assess the agreement between the physicians' impression of nutritional risk and evaluation by Nutritional Risk Screening 2002. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional multicentre study was performed in Internal Medicine wards of 24 Portuguese hospitals during 2017. Data on demographics, previous hospital admissions, primary diagnosis, and Charlson comorbidity index score were collected. Nutritional risk at admission was assessed using Nutritional Risk Screening 2002. Agreement between physicians' impression of nutritional risk and Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 was tested by Cohen's kappa. RESULTS: The study included 729 participants (mean age 74 ± 14.6 years, 51% male). The main reason for admission was respiratory disease. Mean Charlson comorbidity index score was 5.8 ± 2.8. Prevalence of nutritional risk was 51%. Nutritional risk was associated with admission during the previous year (odds ratio = 1.65, 95% confidence interval: 1.22 - 2.24), solid tumour with metastasis (odds ratio = 4.73, 95% confidence interval: 2.06 - 10.87), any tumour without metastasis (odds ratio = 2.04, 95% confidence interval:1.24 - 3.34), kidney disease (odds ratio = 1.83, 95% confidence interval: 1.21 - 2.75), peptic ulcer (odds ratio = 2.17, 95% confidence interval: 1.10 - 4.25), heart failure (odds ratio = 1.51, 95% confidence interval: 1.11 - 2.04), dementia (odds ratio = 3.02, 95% confidence interval: 1.96 - 4.64), and cerebrovascular disease (odds ratio = 1.62, 95% confidence interval: 1.12 - 2.35). Agreement between physicians' evaluation of nutritional status and Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 was weak (Cohen's kappa = 0.415, p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Prevalence of nutritional risk in the Internal Medicine population is very high. Admission during the previous year and multiple comorbidities increase the odds of being at-risk. Subjective physician evaluation is not appropriate for nutritional screening. CONCLUSION: The high prevalence of at-risk patients and poor subjective physician evaluation suggest the need to implement mandatory nutritional screening.

Introdução: A subnutrição associada à doença apresenta grande morbimortalidade e necessita de intervenção precoce. Contudo, a sua identificação assenta frequentemente no julgamento médico. Adicionalmente, sendo a enfermaria de Medicina Interna o pilar do hospital, é essencial maior conhecimento sobre o estado nutricional desta população. Os objetivos consistiram em determinar a prevalência de risco nutricional na enfermaria de Medicina Interna, identificar fatores relacionados e avaliar a concordância entre a avaliação do risco nutricional baseada no julgamento médico e no Nutritional Risk Screening 2002. Material e Métodos: Estudo transversal multicêntrico realizado nas enfermarias de Medicina Interna de 24 hospitais portugueses durante 2017. Foram avaliadas características demográficas, internamentos prévios, diagnósticos principais, índice de comorbilidades de Charlson e habilitações literárias. O risco nutricional à admissão foi avaliado usando o Nutritional Risk Screening 2002. A concordância entre o julgamento médico e o Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 foi testado usando o teste kappa de Cohen (k). Resultados: Foram incluídos 729 participantes (idade média 74 ± 14,6 anos, 51% do sexo masculino). A principal causa de admissão foi doença respiratória. O índice de comorbilidades de Charlson médio foi 5,8 ± 2,8. A prevalência de risco nutricional foi 51%. O risco nutricional associou-se a internamento recente (odds ratio = 1,65, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,22 - 2,24), neoplasia sólida metastizada (odds ratio = 4,73, 95% intervalo de confiança: 2,06 - 10,87), neoplasia não metastizada (odds ratio = 2,04, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,24 - 3,34), doença renal (odds ratio = 1,83, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,21 - 2,75), úlcera péptica (odds ratio = 2,17, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,10 - 4,25), insuficiência cardíaca (odds ratio = 1,51, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,11 - 2,04), demência (odds ratio = 3,02, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,96 - 4,64) e doença cerebrovascular (odds ratio = 1,62, 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,12 - 2,35). A concordância entre julgamento médico e Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 foi fraca (kappa de Cohen = 0,415, p < 0,001). Discussão: A prevalência de risco nutricional na enfermaria de Medicina Interna é muito elevada. Admissão recente e múltiplas comorbilidades aumentam a probabilidade de risco nutricional. A avaliação subjetiva do médico não é apropriada para o rastreio nutricional. Conclusão: A elevada prevalência de doentes em risco e baixa precisão da avaliação subjetiva médica sugerem a necessidade de implementar rastreio nutricional obrigatório a nível nacional.

High prevalence of malnutrition in Internal Medicine wards - a multicentre ANUMEDI study.

BACKGROUND: Disease-related malnutrition is a significant problem in hospitalized patients, with high prevalence rates depending on the studied population. Internal Medicine wards are the backbone of the hospital setting. However, prevalence and determinants of malnutrition in these patients remain unclear. We aimed to determine the prevalence of malnutrition in Internal Medicine wards and to identify and characterize malnourished patients. METHODS: A cross-sectional observational multicentre study was performed in Internal Medicine wards of 24 Portuguese hospitals during 2017. Demographics, hospital admissions during the previous year, type of admission, primary diagnosis, Charlson comorbidity index, and education level were registered. Malnutrition at admission was assessed using Patient-Generated Subjective Global Assessment (PG-SGA). Demographic characteristics were compared between well-nourished and malnourished patients. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify determinants of malnutrition. RESULTS: 729 participants were included (mean age 74 years, 51% male). Main reason for admission was respiratory disease (32%). Mean Charlson comorbidity index was 5.8 ±â€¯2.8. Prevalence of malnutrition was 73% (56% moderate/suspected malnutrition and 17% severe malnutrition), and 54% had a critical need for multidisciplinary intervention (PG-SGA score ≥9). No education (odds ratio [OR] 1.88, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-3.04), hospital admissions during previous year (OR 1.53, 95%CI: 1.05-2.26), and multiple comorbidities (OR 1.22, 95%CI: 1.14-1.32) significantly increased the odds of being malnourished. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of malnutrition in the Internal Medicine population is very high, with the majority of patients having critical need for multidisciplinary intervention. Low education level, admissions during previous year, and multiple comorbidities increase the odds of being malnourished.

Delivered dose of renal replacement therapy and mortality in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury.

INTRODUCTION: The optimal dialysis dose for the treatment of acute kidney injury (AKI) is controversial. We sought to evaluate the relationship between renal replacement therapy (RRT) dose and outcome. METHODS: We performed a prospective multicentre observational study in 30 intensive care units (ICUs) in eight countries from June 2005 to December 2007. Delivered RRT dose was calculated in patients treated exclusively with either continuous RRT (CRRT) or intermittent RRT (IRRT) during their ICU stay. Dose was categorised into more-intensive (CRRT >or= 35 ml/kg/hour, IRRT >or= 6 sessions/week) or less-intensive (CRRT < 35 ml/kg/hour, IRRT < 6 sessions/week). The main outcome measures were ICU mortality, ICU length of stay and duration of mechanical ventilation. RESULTS: Of 15,200 critically ill patients admitted during the study period, 553 AKI patients were treated with RRT, including 338 who received CRRT only and 87 who received IRRT only. For CRRT, the median delivered dose was 27.1 ml/kg/hour (interquartile range (IQR) = 22.1 to 33.9). For IRRT, the median dose was 7 sessions/week (IQR = 5 to 7). Only 22% of CRRT patients and 64% of IRRT patients received a more-intensive dose. Crude ICU mortality among CRRT patients were 60.8% vs. 52.5% (more-intensive vs. less-intensive groups, respectively). In IRRT, this was 23.6 vs. 19.4%, respectively. On multivariable analysis, there was no significant association between RRT dose and ICU mortality (Odds ratio (OR) more-intensive vs. less-intensive: CRRT OR = 1.21, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.66 to 2.21; IRRT OR = 1.50, 95% CI = 0.48 to 4.67). Among survivors, shorter ICU stay and duration of mechanical ventilation were observed in the more-intensive RRT groups (more-intensive vs. less-intensive for all: CRRT (median): 15 (IQR = 8 to 26) vs. 19.5 (IQR = 12 to 33.5) ICU days, P = 0.063; 7 (IQR = 4 to 17) vs. 14 (IQR = 5 to 24) ventilation days, P = 0.031; IRRT: 8 (IQR = 5.5 to 14) vs. 18 (IQR = 13 to 35) ICU days, P = 0.008; 2.5 (IQR = 0 to 10) vs. 12 (IQR = 3 to 24) ventilation days, P = 0.026). CONCLUSIONS: After adjustment for multiple variables, these data provide no evidence for a survival benefit afforded by higher dose RRT. However, more-intensive RRT was associated with a favourable effect on ICU stay and duration of mechanical ventilation among survivors. This result warrants further exploration. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Cochrane Renal Group (CRG110600093).

Study protocol: the DOse REsponse Multicentre International collaborative initiative (DO-RE-MI).

INTRODUCTION: Current practices for renal replacement therapy in intensive care units (ICUs) remain poorly defined. The DOse REsponse Multicentre International collaborative initiative (DO-RE-MI) will address the issue of how the different modes of renal replacement therapy are currently chosen and performed. Here, we describe the study protocol, which was approved by the Scientific and Steering Committees. METHODS: DO-RE-MI is an observational, multicentre study conducted in ICUs. The primary end-point will be the delivered dose of dialysis, which will be compared with ICU mortality, 28-day mortality, hospital mortality, ICU length of stay and number of days of mechanical ventilation. The secondary end-point will be the haemodynamic response to renal replacement therapy, expressed as percentage reduction in noradrenaline (norepinephrine) requirement. Based on the the sample analysis calculation, at least 162 patients must be recruited. Anonymized patient data will be entered online in electronic case report forms and uploaded to an internet website. Each participating centre will have 2 months to become acquainted with the electronic case report forms. After this period official recruitment will begin. Patient data belong to the respective centre, which may use the database for its own needs. However, all centres have agreed to participate in a joint effort to achieve the sample size needed for statistical analysis. CONCLUSION: The study will hopefully help to collect useful information on the current practice of renal replacement therapy in ICUs. It will also provide a centre-based collection of data that will be useful for monitoring all aspects of extracorporeal support, such as incidence, frequency, and duration.

Estimating kidney function in the critically ill patients.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is an accepted measure for assessment of kidney function. For the critically ill patient, creatinine clearance is the method of reference for the estimation of the GFR, although this is often not measured but estimated by equations (i.e., Cockroft-Gault or MDRD) not well suited for the critically ill patient. Functional evaluation of the kidney rests in serum creatinine (Crs) that is subjected to multiple external factors, especially relevant overhydration and loss of muscle mass. The laboratory method used introduces variations in Crs, an important fact considering that small increases in Crs have serious repercussion on the prognosis of patients. Efforts directed to stratify the risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) have crystallized in the RIFLE or AKIN systems, based in sequential changes in Crs or urine flow. These systems have provided a common definition of AKI and, due to their sensitivity, have meant a considerable advantage for the clinical practice but, on the other side, have introduced an uncertainty in clinical research because of potentially overestimating AKI incidence. Another significant drawback is the unavoidable period of time needed before a patient is classified, and this is perhaps the problem to be overcome in the near future.

Nutritional requirements of the critically ill patient. / Necessidades nutricionais do doente crítico.

OBJECTIVE: Given the inaccessibility of indirect calorimetry, intensive care units generally use predictive equations or recommendations that are established by international societies to determine energy expenditure. The aim of the present study was to compare the energy expenditure of critically ill patients, as determined using indirect calorimetry, to the values obtained using the Harris-Benedict equation. METHODS: A retrospective observational study was conducted at the Intensive Care Unit 1 of the Centro Hospitalar do Porto. The energy requirements of hospitalized critically ill patients as determined using indirect calorimetry were assessed between January 2003 and April 2012. The accuracy (± 10% difference between the measured and estimated values), the mean differences and the limits of agreement were determined for the studied equations. RESULTS: Eighty-five patients were assessed using 288 indirect calorimetry measurements. The following energy requirement values were obtained for the different methods: 1,753.98±391.13 kcal/day (24.48 ± 5.95 kcal/kg/day) for indirect calorimetry and 1,504.11 ± 266.99 kcal/day (20.72±2.43 kcal/kg/day) for the Harris-Benedict equation. The equation had a precision of 31.76% with a mean difference of -259.86 kcal/day and limits of agreement between -858.84 and 339.12 kcal/day. Sex (p=0.023), temperature (p=0.009) and body mass index (p<0.001) were found to significantly affect energy expenditure. CONCLUSION: The Harris-Benedict equation is inaccurate and tends to underestimate energy expenditure. In addition, the Harris-Benedict equation is associated with significant differences between the predicted and true energy expenditure at an individual level.

Necessidades nutricionais do doente crítico / Nutritional requirements of the critically ill patient

OBJETIVO: As unidades de terapia intensiva recorrem às equações preditivas, para determinar o gasto energético, ou às recomendações estabelecidas por sociedades internacionais, devido à inacessibilidade da calorimetria indireta. O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar o gasto energético de pacientes críticos, por calorimetria indireta, aos calculados por meio da equação de Harris-Benedict. MÉTODOS: Estudo retrospectivo observacional realizado no Serviço de Cuidados Intensivos 1 do Centro Hospitalar do Porto. Foram avaliadas as necessidades energéticas, desde janeiro de 2003 até abril de 2012, dos pacientes críticos internados em que foi realizada calorimetria indireta. Procedeu-se ao cálculo da precisão (intervalo de ±10% entre os valores medidos e estimados), da diferença média e dos limites de concordância da equação estudada. RESULTADOS: Foram avaliados 85 pacientes, em que se efetuaram 288 medições por calorimetria indireta. Valores obtidos para necessidades energéticas em diferentes métodos: calorimetria indireta 1.753,98±391,13 kcal ao dia (24,48±5,95 kcal/kg ao dia), equação de Harris-Benedict 1.504,11±266,99 kcal ao dia (20,72±2,43 kcal/kg ao dia). A precisão da equação foi de 31,76%, a diferença média de -259,86 kcal ao dia, com limites de concordância entre -858,84 a 339,12 kcal ao dia. O gênero (p=0,023), a temperatura (p=0,009) e o índice de massa corporal (p<0,001) revelaram-se fatores com impacto significativo no gasto energético. CONCLUSÃO: A equação de Harris-Benedict não é precisa na determinação do gasto energético, subestimando-o e apresentando diferenças significativas para predizer, a nível individual, o gasto energético real.

OBJECTIVE: Given the inaccessibility of indirect calorimetry, intensive care units generally use predictive equations or recommendations that are established by international societies to determine energy expenditure. The aim of the present study was to compare the energy expenditure of critically ill patients, as determined using indirect calorimetry, to the values obtained using the Harris-Benedict equation. METHODS: A retrospective observational study was conducted at the Intensive Care Unit 1 of the Centro Hospitalar do Porto. The energy requirements of hospitalized critically ill patients as determined using indirect calorimetry were assessed between January 2003 and April 2012. The accuracy (± 10% difference between the measured and estimated values), the mean differences and the limits of agreement were determined for the studied equations. RESULTS: Eighty-five patients were assessed using 288 indirect calorimetry measurements. The following energy requirement values were obtained for the different methods: 1,753.98±391.13 kcal/day (24.48 ± 5.95 kcal/kg/day) for indirect calorimetry and 1,504.11 ± 266.99 kcal/day (20.72±2.43 kcal/kg/day) for the Harris-Benedict equation. The equation had a precision of 31.76% with a mean difference of -259.86 kcal/day and limits of agreement between -858.84 and 339.12 kcal/day. Sex (p=0.023), temperature (p=0.009) and body mass index (p<0.001) were found to significantly affect energy expenditure. CONCLUSION: The Harris-Benedict equation is inaccurate and tends to underestimate energy expenditure. In addition, the Harris-Benedict equation is associated with significant differences between the predicted and true energy expenditure at an individual level.