Mass of genes rather than master genes underlie the genomic architecture of amphibian speciation.

The genetic architecture of speciation, i.e., how intrinsic genomic incompatibilities promote reproductive isolation (RI) between diverging lineages, is one of the best-kept secrets of evolution. To directly assess whether incompatibilities arise in a limited set of large-effect speciation genes, or in a multitude of loci, we examined the geographic and genomic landscapes of introgression across the hybrid zones of 41 pairs of frog and toad lineages in the Western Palearctic region. As the divergence between lineages increases, phylogeographic transitions progressively become narrower, and larger parts of the genome resist introgression. This suggests that anuran speciation proceeds through a gradual accumulation of multiple barrier loci scattered across the genome, which ultimately deplete hybrid fitness by intrinsic postzygotic isolation, with behavioral isolation being achieved only at later stages. Moreover, these loci were disproportionately sex linked in one group (Hyla) but not in others (Rana and Bufotes), implying that large X-effects are not necessarily a rule of speciation with undifferentiated sex chromosomes. The highly polygenic nature of RI and the lack of hemizygous X/Z chromosomes could explain why the speciation clock ticks slower in amphibians compared to other vertebrates. The clock-like dynamics of speciation combined with the analytical focus on hybrid zones offer perspectives for more standardized practices of species delimitation.

Fifteen shades of green: The evolution of Bufotes toads revisited.

The radiation of Palearctic green toads (Bufotes) holds great potential to evaluate the role of hybridization in phylogeography at multiple stages along the speciation continuum. With fifteen species representing three ploidy levels, this model system is particularly attractive to examine the causes and consequences of allopolyploidization, a prevalent yet enigmatic pathway towards hybrid speciation. Despite substantial efforts, the evolutionary history of this species complex remains largely blurred by the lack of consistency among the corresponding literature. To get a fresh, comprehensive view on Bufotes phylogeography, here we combined genome-wide multilocus analyses (RAD-seq) with an extensive compilation of mitochondrial, genome size, niche modelling, distribution and phenotypic (bioacoustics, morphometrics, toxin composition) datasets, representing hundreds of populations throughout Eurasia. We provide a fully resolved nuclear phylogeny for Bufotes and highlight exceptional cyto-nuclear discordances characteristic of complete mtDNA replacement (in 20% of species), mitochondrial surfing during post-glacial expansions, and the formation of homoploid hybrid populations. Moreover, we traced the origin of several allopolyploids down to species level, showing that all were exclusively fathered by the West Himalayan B. latastii but mothered by several diploid forms inhabiting Central Asian lowlands, an asymmetry consistent with hypotheses on mate choice and Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities. Their intermediate call phenotypes potentially allowed for rapid reproductive isolation, while toxin compositions converged towards the ecologically-closest parent. Across the radiation, we pinpoint a stepwise progression of reproductive isolation through time, with a threshold below which hybridizability is irrespective of divergence (<6My), above which species barely admix and eventually evolve different mating calls (6-10My), or can successfully cross-breed through allopolyploidization (>15My). Finally, we clarified the taxonomy of Bufotes (including genetic analyses of type series) and formally described two new species, B. cypriensis sp. nov. (endemic to Cyprus) and B. perrini sp. nov. (endemic to Central Asia). Embracing the genomic age, our framework marks the advent of a new exciting era for evolutionary research in these iconic amphibians.

The Amphibian Genomics Consortium: advancing genomic and genetic resources for amphibian research and conservation.

Amphibians represent a diverse group of tetrapods, marked by deep divergence times between their three systematic orders and families. Studying amphibian biology through the genomics lens increases our understanding of the features of this animal class and that of other terrestrial vertebrates. The need for amphibian genomics resources is more urgent than ever due to the increasing threats to this group. Amphibians are one of the most imperiled taxonomic groups, with approximately 41% of species threatened with extinction due to habitat loss, changes in land use patterns, disease, climate change, and their synergistic effects. Amphibian genomics resources have provided a better understanding of ontogenetic diversity, tissue regeneration, diverse life history and reproductive modes, antipredator strategies, and resilience and adaptive responses. They also serve as critical models for understanding widespread genomic characteristics, including evolutionary genome expansions and contractions given they have the largest range in genome sizes of any animal taxon and multiple mechanisms of genetic sex determination. Despite these features, genome sequencing of amphibians has significantly lagged behind that of other vertebrates, primarily due to the challenges of assembling their large, repeat-rich genomes and the relative lack of societal support. The advent of long-read sequencing technologies, along with computational techniques that enhance scaffolding capabilities and streamline computational workload is now enabling the ability to overcome some of these challenges. To promote and accelerate the production and use of amphibian genomics research through international coordination and collaboration, we launched the Amphibian Genomics Consortium (AGC) in early 2023. This burgeoning community already has more than 282 members from 41 countries (6 in Africa, 131 in the Americas, 27 in Asia, 29 in Australasia, and 89 in Europe). The AGC aims to leverage the diverse capabilities of its members to advance genomic resources for amphibians and bridge the implementation gap between biologists, bioinformaticians, and conservation practitioners. Here we evaluate the state of the field of amphibian genomics, highlight previous studies, present challenges to overcome, and outline how the AGC can enable amphibian genomics research to "leap" to the next level.

Cytological maps of lampbrush chromosomes of European water frogs (Pelophylax esculentus complex) from the Eastern Ukraine.

BACKGROUND: Hybridogenesis (hemiclonal inheritance) is a kind of clonal reproduction in which hybrids between parental species are reproduced by crossing with one of the parental species. European water frogs (Pelophylax esculentus complex) represent an appropriate model for studying interspecies hybridization, processes of hemiclonal inheritance and polyploidization. P. esculentus complex consists of two parental species, P. ridibundus (the lake frog) and P. lessonae (the pool frog), and their hybridogenetic hybrid - P. esculentus (the edible frog). Parental and hybrid frogs can reproduce syntopically and form hemiclonal population systems. For studying mechanisms underlying the maintenance of water frog population systems it is required to characterize the karyotypes transmitted in gametes of parental and different hybrid animals of both sexes. RESULTS: In order to obtain an instrument for characterization of oocyte karyotypes in hybrid female frogs, we constructed cytological maps of lampbrush chromosomes from oocytes of both parental species originating in Eastern Ukraine. We further identified certain molecular components of chromosomal marker structures and mapped coilin-rich spheres and granules, chromosome associated nucleoli and special loops accumulating splicing factors. We recorded the dissimilarities between P. ridibundus and P. lessonae lampbrush chromosomes in the length of orthologous chromosomes, number and location of marker structures and interstitial (TTAGGG)n-repeat sites as well as activity of nucleolus organizer. Satellite repeat RrS1 was mapped in centromere regions of lampbrush chromosomes of the both species. Additionally, we discovered transcripts of RrS1 repeat in oocytes of P. ridibundus and P. lessonae. Moreover, G-rich transcripts of telomere repeat were revealed in association with terminal regions of P. ridibundus and P. lessonae lampbrush chromosomes. CONCLUSIONS: The constructed cytological maps of lampbrush chromosomes of P. ridibundus and P. lessonae provide basis to define the type of genome transmitted within individual oocytes of P. esculentus females with different ploidy and from various population systems.

Capture and return of sexual genomes by hybridogenetic frogs provide clonal genome enrichment in a sexual species.

Hybridogenesis is a reproductive tool for sexual parasitism. Hybridogenetic hybrids use gametes from their sexual host for their own reproduction, but sexual species gain no benefit from such matings as their genome is later eliminated. Here, we examine the presence of sexual parasitism in water frogs through crossing experiments and genome-wide data. We specifically focus on the famous Central-European populations where Pelophylax esculentus males (hybrids of P. ridibundus and P. lessonae) live with P. ridibundus. We identified a system where the hybrids commonly produce two types of clonal gametes (hybrid amphispermy). The haploid lessonae genome is clonally inherited from generation to generation and assures the maintenance of hybrids through a process, in which lessonae sperm fertilize P. ridibundus eggs. The haploid ridibundus genome in hybrids received from P. ridibundus a generation ago, is perpetuated as clonal ridibundus sperm and used to fertilize P. ridibundus eggs, yielding female P. ridibundus progeny. These results imply animal reproduction in which hybridogenetic taxa are not only sexual parasites, but also participate in the formation of a sexual taxon in a remarkable way. This occurs through a process by which sexual gametes are being captured, converted to clones, and returned to sexual populations in one generation.

Optional Endoreplication and Selective Elimination of Parental Genomes during Oogenesis in Diploid and Triploid Hybrid European Water Frogs.

Incompatibilities between parental genomes decrease viability of interspecific hybrids; however, deviations from canonical gametogenesis such as genome endoreplication and elimination can rescue hybrid organisms. To evaluate frequency and regularity of genome elimination and endoreplication during gametogenesis in hybrid animals with different ploidy, we examined genome composition in oocytes of di- and triploid hybrid frogs of the Pelophylax esculentus complex. Obtained results allowed us to suggest that during oogenesis the endoreplication involves all genomes occurring before the selective genome elimination. We accepted the hypothesis that only elimination of one copied genome occurs premeiotically in most of triploid hybrid females. At the same time, we rejected the hypothesis stating that the genome of parental species hybrid frogs co-exist with is always eliminated during oogenesis in diploid hybrids. Diploid hybrid frogs demonstrate an enlarged frequency of deviations in oogenesis comparatively to triploid hybrids. Typical for hybrid frogs deviations in gametogenesis increase variability of produced gametes and provide a mechanism for appearance of different forms of hybrids.