RESUMO
The current study examined the effect of a delay on naturalistic time-based prospective memory (PM) tasks. Two experiments were performed to compare PM performance on a texting task with delays of 1 to 6 days after an initial session. In the first experiment, half of the participants were asked to repeat their response with the same delay to test whether requiring a second response (i.e., a repeated PM task, such as taking medication at the same time each day) would affect time-based PM performance. In the second experiment, participants were given an implicit or an explicit reminder several hours before their time to respond to examine the effect of type of reminder on this PM task. The results of both experiments showed a significant decline in PM performance between the 1-day and multi-day delays. Repeating responses (Experiment 1) had no effect on accuracy of the PM task, but in Experiment 2, explicit experimenter-initiated reminders significantly increased time-based PM performance compared with implicit reminders. These results are discussed in the context of previous studies that have tested delay effects on time-based PM and current theoretical descriptions of time-based PM.
Assuntos
Memória Episódica , Humanos , Masculino , Feminino , Adulto Jovem , Fatores de Tempo , Adulto , Tempo de Reação , Adolescente , Envio de Mensagens de Texto , Sistemas de AlertaRESUMO
ABSTRACTPrecrastination is the act of completing a task as soon as possible even at the expense of extra effort. Past research has suggested that individuals precrastinate due to a desire to reduce their cognitive load, also known as the cognitive load-reduction (CLEAR) hypothesis [VonderHaar, R. L., McBride, D. M., & Rosenbaum, D. A. (2019). Task order choices in cognitive and perceptual-motor tasks: The cognitive-load-reduction (CLEAR) hypothesis. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(7), 2517-2525. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-019-01754-z]. This idea stems from the notion that it is taxing to hold intentions in working memory and completing a task as soon as possible releases cognitive resources for other tasks. Based on this hypothesis, we predicted that aspects of executive function may play a role in precrastination. We tested this prediction using a box-moving task developed in a previous study to measure precrastination. We also incorporated tasks measuring updating and inhibition aspects of executive function: the Stroop interference (both experiments) and Simon tasks (Experiment 2) to measure inhibition and the 2-Back memory task (Experiment 1) to measure updating. We found that the majority of participants precrastinated significantly throughout the box-moving task trials, consistent with results from past studies. However, no relation was found between the executive function tasks and rates of precrastination. These results may be due to the automaticity of precrastination when cognitive resources are limited.
Assuntos
Função Executiva , Inibição Psicológica , Humanos , Função Executiva/fisiologia , Masculino , Feminino , Adulto Jovem , Adulto , Memória de Curto Prazo/fisiologia , Atenção/fisiologia , Cognição/fisiologiaRESUMO
Although much recent research has focused on event-based prospective memory (PM), fewer studies have compared event- and time-based PM. In the current study, two experiments were conducted to directly compare ongoing task costs of focal and non-focal event-based tasks with a time-based task. In the second experiment, an external reminder of the task was present to test whether this reduced the cost of the time-based task. PM accuracy was significantly greater for the focal conditions, as predicted. Response times (RT) were highest in the non-focal tasks, with similar RTs in the focal and time-based tasks. Clock check frequency was significantly related to making a PM response in the time-based task, with clock checks increasing as the 7â min target time approached. While time-based tasks may be more difficult to complete, they do not seem to result in the speed cost to an ongoing task that non-focal PM tasks do.
Assuntos
Memória Episódica , Humanos , Tempo de ReaçãoRESUMO
The feature boost refers to increased false memories for word lists that are both associatively and categorically (C + A) related to a non-presented critical item (CI) relative to lists that are only associatively (NC-A) related [Coane, J. H., McBride, D. M., Termonen, M.-L., & Cutting, J. C. (2016). Categorical and associative relations increase false memory relative to purely associative relations. Memory & Cognition, 44(1), 37-49. doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0543-1]. We explored the replicability of the feature boost and its dependance on monitoring processes by explicitly warning participants about the nature of the lists or by asking participants to guess the CI (implicit warning). Overall, the feature boost was replicated. Guessing performance was higher for C + A lists than for NC-A lists. Explicit warnings were equally effective for both list types in reducing false memory relative to recall and to a no-recall math condition. When the CI was not guessed or recalled, the feature boost emerged. However, when the CI was guessed or previously recalled, false alarms did not differ as a function of list type. The feature boost seems to be driven in part by differences in the identifiability of the CI, such that CIs related to C + A lists are harder to identify and thus reject. These results suggest that differences in monitoring processes that are sensitive to CI identifiability contribute to the effect.
Assuntos
Rememoração Mental , Reconhecimento Psicológico/fisiologia , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovemRESUMO
The current study compared monitoring in time- and event-based prospective memory (PM). Time- and event-based non-focal task instructions were given after a baseline block of a lexical decision ongoing task. Delay between instruction and presentation of PM cue/time was manipulated between-subjects to examine monitoring across short delays (1-6â min). Longer delays decreased performance in the event-based task, but not in the time-based task. This accuracy decline was accompanied by a decline in monitoring (as measured by PM cost to the ongoing task in the trials immediately before the PM cue was presented) between the 1 and 3â min delays. Monitoring was only evident for the time-based task at the 6â min delay as measured by PM cost to the ongoing task. Clock checks were also not affected by delay, but did increase in frequency as the response time neared. These results suggest that delay from the time of intention formation decreases both accuracy and monitoring in event-based tasks, but does not decrease accuracy or monitoring in time-based tasks.
Assuntos
Atenção/fisiologia , Memória Episódica , Desempenho Psicomotor , Adulto , Sinais (Psicologia) , Humanos , Intenção , Tempo de Reação/fisiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
The goal of the present study was to examine the contributions of associative strength and similarity in terms of shared features to the production of false memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott list-learning paradigm. Whereas the activation/monitoring account suggests that false memories are driven by automatic associative activation from list items to nonpresented lures, combined with errors in source monitoring, other accounts (e.g., fuzzy trace theory, global-matching models) emphasize the importance of semantic-level similarity, and thus predict that shared features between list and lure items will increase false memory. Participants studied lists of nine items related to a nonpresented lure. Half of the lists consisted of items that were associated but did not share features with the lure, and the other half included items that were equally associated but also shared features with the lure (in many cases, these were taxonomically related items). The two types of lists were carefully matched in terms of a variety of lexical and semantic factors, and the same lures were used across list types. In two experiments, false recognition of the critical lures was greater following the study of lists that shared features with the critical lure, suggesting that similarity at a categorical or taxonomic level contributes to false memory above and beyond associative strength. We refer to this phenomenon as a "feature boost" that reflects additive effects of shared meaning and association strength and is generally consistent with accounts of false memory that have emphasized thematic or feature-level similarity among studied and nonstudied representations.
Assuntos
Associação , Rememoração Mental/fisiologia , Reconhecimento Psicológico/fisiologia , Adulto , Humanos , Adulto JovemRESUMO
The current study provides evidence for spontaneous processing in prospective memory (PM) or memory for intentions. Discrepancy-plus-search is the spontaneous processing of PM cues via disruptions in processing fluency of ongoing task items. We tested whether this mechanism can be demonstrated in an ongoing rating task with a dominant semantic context. Ongoing task items were manipulated such that the PM cues were members of a semantic category (i.e., Body Parts) that was congruent or discrepant with the dominant semantic category in the ongoing task. Results showed that participants correctly responded to more PM cues when there was a category discrepancy between the PM cues and ongoing task items. Moreover, participants' identification of PM cues was accompanied by faster ongoing task reaction times when PM cues were discrepant with ongoing task items than when they were congruent. These results suggest that a discrepancy-plus-search process supports PM retrieval in certain contexts, and that some discrepancy-plus-search mechanisms may result from the violation of processing expectations within a semantic context.
Assuntos
Atenção/fisiologia , Memória Episódica , Modelos Psicológicos , Sinais (Psicologia) , Humanos , Testes Neuropsicológicos , Estimulação Luminosa , Tempo de Reação/fisiologiaRESUMO
The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been at the centre of false memory research. Whereas most work with this paradigm has examined memory at the long term and with semantically associated lists, the present study examines phonological and semantic false memories at both short- and long-term delays. In two experiments, participants studied short lists containing six (Experiment 1) or four (Experiment 2) items, either semantically or phonologically related to the same non-studied critical items (CI). Following each list, participants completed 36 trials of an immediate recognition task (short-term memory [STM]-only condition) only or they also completed a surprise recognition test after a 1-min delay after all 36 STM trials (STM + long-term memory [LTM] condition). In STM, false alarms were higher in phonological lists, whereas after the delay, false alarms were higher in semantic lists, reflecting differential sensitivity to the type of association as a function of delay. A third experiment examined LTM performance after controlling for prior testing and yielded highly similar results. Both the activation-monitoring framework (AMF) and fuzzy-trace theory (FTT) can explain the majority of the findings, with some remaining issues. These results confirm that information from the knowledge base (LTM) does influence accuracy in an STM task, albeit less so than perceptual level similarity.
RESUMO
The present study was designed to investigate the survival processing effect (Nairne, Thompson, & Pandeirada, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 263-273, 2007) in cued implicit and explicit memory tests. The survival effect has been well established in explicit free recall and recognition tests, but has not been evident in implicit memory tests or in cued explicit tests. In Experiment 1 of the present study, we tested implicit and explicit memory for words studied in survival, moving, or pleasantness contexts in stem completion tests. In Experiment 2, we further tested these effects in implicit and explicit category production tests. Across the two experiments, with four separate memory tasks that included a total of 525 subjects, no survival processing advantage was found, replicating the results from implicit tests reported by Tse and Altarriba (Memory & Cognition, 38, 1110-1121, 2010). Thus, although the survival effect appears to be quite robust in free recall and recognition tests, it has not been replicated in cued implicit and explicit memory tests. The similar results found for the implicit and explicit tests in the present study do not support encoding elaboration explanations of the survival processing effect.
Assuntos
Memória/fisiologia , Sobrevida/psicologia , Adulto , Evolução Biológica , Sinais (Psicologia) , Humanos , Rememoração Mental/fisiologia , Sobrevida/fisiologiaRESUMO
Past studies (e.g., Marsh, Hicks, & Cook Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31:68-75, 2005; Meiser & Schult European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 20:290-311, 2008) have shown that transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) effects in event-based prospective memory (PM) depend on the effort directed toward the ongoing task. In the present study, we addressed mixed findings from these studies and examined monitoring in TAP and transfer-inappropriate processing (TIP) conditions. In two experiments, a semantic or orthographic ongoing task was paired with a PM cue that either was matched in processing (TAP) or did not match in processing (TIP). Within each condition, effort was varied across trials. The results indicated that PM accuracy was higher in TAP than in TIP conditions, regardless of effort condition, supporting the findings reported by Meiser and Schult. Ex-Gaussian functions were fit to the mean reaction times (cf. Brewer Journal of Psychology 219:117-124, 2011) in order to examine monitoring across conditions. The analysis of distributional skew (τ parameter) showed sensitivity to ongoing task instructions and properties of the PM cues. These results support Meiser and Schult's suggestion that TIP conditions require more attentional processing, and they also afford novel discussion on the interactive effects of ongoing task condition, PM cue properties, and manipulations of effort.
Assuntos
Atenção/fisiologia , Memória/fisiologia , Transferência de Experiência/fisiologia , Adulto , Sinais (Psicologia) , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Distribuição Aleatória , Tempo de Reação/fisiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
To address the mixed results reported in previous studies, the present experiments examined forgetting in prospective memory (PM) by manipulating the delay between the PM instructions and cue presentation in event-based PM tasks. PM performance was measured for delays of 2-20 min in Experiment 1 and for delays of approximately 1-10 min in Experiment 2. Experiment 2 included both focal and nonfocal PM tasks, and speed on the ongoing task was measured to examine evidence for monitoring processes across the delays tested. The results suggest that nonfocal PM performance follows a nonlinear forgetting function (i.e., rapid decline for shorter delays and slower decline for longer delays) when tested over delays from 1 to 20 min. No effect of delay was seen for the focal task tested in Experiment 2 from 1 to 10 min. In Experiment 2, ongoing-task costs were also found for the first delay but not for longer delays, suggesting that monitoring was significantly reduced between 1 and 2.5 min of the ongoing-task trials.
Assuntos
Sinais (Psicologia) , Memória de Curto Prazo , Rememoração Mental , Adulto , Humanos , Filmes Cinematográficos , Desempenho Psicomotor , Retenção Psicológica , Percepção Visual , Adulto JovemRESUMO
The use of list-learning paradigms to explore false memory has revealed several critical findings about the contributions of similarity and relatedness in memory phenomena more broadly. Characterizing the nature of "similarity and relatedness" can inform researchers about factors contributing to memory distortions and about the underlying associative and semantic networks that support veridical memory. Similarity can be defined in terms of semantic properties (e.g., shared conceptual and taxonomic features), lexical/associative properties (e.g., shared connections in associative networks), or structural properties (e.g., shared orthographic or phonological features). By manipulating the type of list and its relationship to a non-studied critical item, we review the effects of these types of similarity on veridical and false memory. All forms of similarity reviewed here result in reliable error rates and the effects on veridical memory are variable. The results across a variety of paradigms and tests provide partial support for a number of theoretical explanations of false memory phenomena, but none of the theories readily account for all results.
RESUMO
A core question in the study of the dynamics of cognition is how tasks are ordered. Given two tasks, neither of which is prerequisite for the other and neither of which brings a clearly greater reward, which task will be done first? Few studies have addressed this question, though recent work has suggested one possible answer, which we here call the cognitive-load-reduction (CLEAR) hypothesis. According to the CLEAR hypothesis, there is a strong drive to reduce cognitive load (to "clear one's mind"). Given two tasks, one of which is more cognitively demanding than the other, the more cognitively demanding task will tend to be done first. We tested this prediction using a novel method inviting participants to freely choose when to perform each of c = 5, 10, or 15 items per category in item-generation tasks relative to b = 10 box-moving tasks. The box-moving tasks were cognitively undemanding relative to the item generation tasks, whose cognitive difficulty presumably grew with c. A full half of our n = 122 participants chose to complete all of the c tasks before performing any of the b tasks, and most other participants chose to complete a majority of the c tasks before any of the b tasks. This result is consistent with the CLEAR hypothesis. Speed on the box-moving task decreased the later the category-generation task was completed, supporting another CLEAR prediction. The general method used here provides direction for future work on task order choices in cognitive and perceptual-motor tasks.
Assuntos
Comportamento de Escolha/fisiologia , Cognição/fisiologia , Percepção de Movimento/fisiologia , Desempenho Psicomotor/fisiologia , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Estimulação Luminosa/métodos , Tempo de Reação/fisiologia , Recompensa , Adulto JovemRESUMO
False memories have primarily been investigated at long-term delays in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure, but a few studies have reported meaning-based false memories at delays as short as 1-4 s. The current study further investigated the processes that contribute to short-term false memories with semantic and phonological lists (Experiment 1) and hybrid lists containing items of each type (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, more false memories were found for phonological than for semantic lists. In Experiment 2, an asymmetrical hyper-additive effect was found such that including one or two phonological associates in pure semantic lists yielded a robust increase in false alarms, whereas including semantic associates in pure phonological lists did not affect false alarms. These results are more consistent with the activation-monitoring account of false memory creation than with fuzzy trace theory that has not typically been referenced when describing phonological false memories.
Assuntos
Memória de Curto Prazo/fisiologia , Rememoração Mental/fisiologia , Psicolinguística , Adulto , Humanos , Fonética , Semântica , Adulto JovemRESUMO
In information-based approaches, affordances are perceived by detecting information that specifies an animal-environment fit, not by combining perceptions of constituent lower-order properties. Given that detection of such information necessarily occurs over space and time, there is no clear distinction between perception and memory. Rather, perceiving and remembering are continuous processes. Whereas previous research has investigated the continuity of perceived and remembered affordances for the self, we did so with respect to perceived and remembered affordances for others. Participants reported remembered maximum reaching height and remembered anthropometric properties of another person. Remembered maximum reaching height was not reducible to a combination of remembered anthropometric properties. Moreover, remembered maximum reaching height scaled to the reaching ability of the other person and not to that of the perceiver. Both results are consistent with an information-based perspective on perceiving and remembering affordances and demonstrate a continuity between perceiving and remembering affordances for others.
Assuntos
Antropometria/métodos , Rememoração Mental/fisiologia , Percepção/fisiologia , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , MasculinoRESUMO
The Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM; Roediger & McDermott, 1995) paradigm reliably elicits false memories for critical nonpresented words in recognition tasks. The present studies used a Sternberg (1966) task with DRM lists to determine whether false memories occur in short-term memory tasks and to assess the contribution of latency data in the measurement of false memories. Subjects studied three, five, or seven items from DRM lists and responded to a single probe (studied or nonstudied). In both experiments, critical lures were falsely recognized more often than nonpresented weak associates. Latency data indicated that correct rejections of critical lures were slower than correct rejections of weakly related items at all set sizes. False alarms to critical lures were slower than hits to list items. Latency data can distinguish veridical and false memories in a short-term memory task. Results are discussed in terms of activation-monitoring models of false memory.
Assuntos
Memória de Curto Prazo , Repressão Psicológica , Aprendizagem Verbal , Humanos , Tempo de Reação , Semântica , SugestãoRESUMO
Reports of critical lure priming in perceptual implicit tasks [e.g., McKone, E., & Murphy, B. (2000). Implicit false memory: Effects of modality and multiple study presentations on long-lived semantic priming. Journal of Memory and Language, 43, 89-109] using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott [Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803-814] procedure have suggested availability of the lexical form of lure items at study. Three experiments were conducted to further explore "false" implicit priming in perceptual tests. In Experiments 1 and 3, implicit and explicit stem completion tests were given in the DRM procedure with semantic lists; in Experiment 2, a graphemic response test was used in a similar design. For all experiments, explicit instructions resulted in reliable false memory, while implicit instructions resulted in priming for list items and no priming for lure items. Priming for lure items was evident for "test-aware" subjects only in Experiment 1 and in a combined analysis for all three experiments. These results establish boundary conditions for priming for critical lures and indicate that access to the lexical form of critical lures may not occur under incidental learning conditions when strong controls against explicit retrieval are implemented.
Assuntos
Psicologia/métodos , Repressão Psicológica , Adulto , Humanos , Aprendizagem , Semântica , Inquéritos e QuestionáriosRESUMO
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to execute a delayed behavior. Most theoretical and empirical work on PM has focused on the attentional resources that might facilitate successfully executing a delayed behavior. In the present study, we enhance the current understanding of attention allocation and also introduce novel evidence for the dynamics of PM retrieval. We recorded mouse-tracking trajectories during a prospective memory task to examine the continuous nature of attentional processes that support PM cue retrieval. We found that the velocity profiles of response trajectories differed as a function of PM cue focality while controlling for the canonical measure of response time, supporting the notions that monitoring is evident in the continuous nature of response trajectories and that such trajectories are sensitive to cue focality. Conditional velocity profiles of ongoing task trials indicated that monitoring occurred when the processing of PM cues differed from ongoing task instructions (Nonfocal PM condition): responses were made later in the profile, suggestive of a more controlled retrieval process. Analysis of PM cue retrieval profiles indicated correctly retrieved Focal PM cues were qualitatively and quantitatively different from all other PM cue retrieval trials. This provides evidence that retrieval dynamics of a delayed behavior differ as a function of cue focality and suggests that controlled processing may contribute to spontaneous retrieval of a PM task.
Assuntos
Atenção/fisiologia , Sinais (Psicologia) , Memória Episódica , Humanos , Tempo de Reação/fisiologiaRESUMO
The current study measured forgetting in a time-based, naturalistic prospective memory (PM) task. In Experiment 1, younger and older participants were asked to mail a stamped postcard on a date that was delayed 1, 2, 5, 14, or 28 days in the future. In Experiment 2, a different sample of older participants completed the same task with similar delays to replicate results for the older sample in Experiment 1. Overall, older participants were more likely than younger participants to mail the postcard on time. In addition, delay affected on-time return rates more for the younger participants than the older participants. Younger participants' return rates illustrated the typical forgetting curve seen in numerous retrospective memory studies (i.e., rapid decline at shorter delays and slower decline for longer delays). However, older participants' return rates only declined at the longest delays. These results indicate that time-based PM performance declines with an increase in delay, but the form of the decline may differ across age groups.
Assuntos
Memória Episódica , Adolescente , Adulto , Fatores Etários , Idoso , Idoso de 80 Anos ou mais , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Fatores de Tempo , Adulto JovemRESUMO
We examined multi-process (MP) and transfer-appropriate processing descriptions of prospective memory (PM). Three conditions were compared that varied the overlap in processing type (perceptual/conceptual) between the ongoing and PM tasks such that two conditions involved a match of perceptual processing and one condition involved a mismatch in processing (conceptual ongoing task/perceptual PM task). One of the matched processing conditions also created a focal PM task, whereas the other two conditions were considered non-focal (Einstein & McDaniel, 2005). PM task accuracy and ongoing task completion speed in baseline and PM task conditions were measured. Accuracy results indicated a higher PM task completion rate for the focal condition than the non-focal conditions, a finding that is consistent with predictions made by the MP view. However, reaction time (RT) analyses indicated that PM task cost did not differ across conditions when practice effects are considered. Thus, the PM accuracy results are consistent with a MP description of PM, but RT results did not support the MP view predictions regarding PM cost.