Frequency of epistaxis and telangiectasia in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) in comparison with the general population: Curaçao diagnostic criteria revisited.

PURPOSE: The Curaçao criteria are well-established diagnostic criteria for hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), but they lack details regarding a predictive presentation of epistaxis and telangiectasias. This study collects and compares data in HHT and population cohorts to inform the application of these criteria. METHODS: In-person interviews regarding epistaxis and targeted examination for telangiectases in a general population cohort (n = 204) and an HHT cohort (n = 432) were conducted. RESULTS: Frequency of epistaxis, rather than intensity or duration, was the best discriminator of HHT. A cutoff of ≥4 nosebleeds per year alone yielded a diagnostic sensitivity of 97%, and specificity of 84%. The mean number of telangiectases at the sites investigated was 0.4 in the general population cohort and 26.5 in the HHT cohort. The most distinctive sites for telangiectases in HHT were lips and palmar fingers, whereas telangiectases of the face and dorsum of the hand were comparable in both cohorts. CONCLUSION: We propose that the Curaçao criteria be modified to include the following cutoffs: (1) epistaxis frequency of ≥4 nosebleeds per year and (2) telangiectasia count of at least 2 in characteristic locations (palmar aspect of fingers, lips, and oral cavity), and that cutaneous telangiectases at other sites not be considered relevant for diagnostic purposes.

A rare neuromyelitis optica mimic: Primary CNS histiocytic sarcoma.

Primary central nervous system (CNS) histiocytic sarcoma is a rare hematolymphoid malignancy with features of mature histiocytes and carries a poor prognosis. We describe a unique case in which a 50-year-old woman presented with recurrent acute brainstem syndrome, area postrema syndrome, and myelitis with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesions meeting diagnostic criteria for seronegative neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). Despite initial improvement with steroids and plasma exchange, she experienced recurrent symptoms over 10 months referable to new and persistently enhancing lesions. At autopsy, neuropathology revealed a diffusely infiltrative primary CNS histiocytic sarcoma. This case represents a rare clinicoradiologic mimic of NMOSD, underscoring the importance of evaluation for infiltrative diseases in cases of atypical seronegative NMOSD.

Global Policy Barriers and Enablers to Exercise and Physical Activity in Kidney Care.

OBJECTIVE: Impairment in physical function and physical performance leads to decreased independence and health-related quality of life in people living with chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease. Physical activity and exercise in kidney care are not priorities in policy development. We aimed to identify global policy-related enablers, barriers, and strategies to increase exercise participation and physical activity behavior for people living with kidney disease. DESIGN AND METHODS: Guided by the Behavior Change Wheel theoretical framework, 50 global renal exercise experts developed policy barriers and enablers to exercise program implementation and physical activity promotion in kidney care. The consensus process consisted of developing themes from renal experts from North America, South America, Continental Europe, United Kingdom, Asia, and Oceania. Strategies to address enablers and barriers were identified by the group, and consensus was achieved. RESULTS: We found that policies addressing funding, service provision, legislation, regulations, guidelines, the environment, communication, and marketing are required to support people with kidney disease to be physically active, participate in exercise, and improve health-related quality of life. We provide a global perspective and highlight Japanese, Canadian, and other regional examples where policies have been developed to increase renal physical activity and rehabilitation. We present recommendations targeting multiple stakeholders including nephrologists, nurses, allied health clinicians, organizations providing renal care and education, and renal program funders. CONCLUSIONS: We strongly recommend the nephrology community and people living with kidney disease take action to change policy now, rather than idly waiting for indisputable clinical trial evidence that increasing physical activity, strength, fitness, and function improves the lives of people living with kidney disease.

Second International Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia.

DESCRIPTION: Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is an autosomal dominant disease with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 5000 that is characterized by the presence of vascular malformations (VMs). These result in chronic bleeding, acute hemorrhage, and complications from shunting through VMs. The goal of the Second International HHT Guidelines process was to develop evidence-based consensus guidelines for the management and prevention of HHT-related symptoms and complications. METHODS: The guidelines were developed using the AGREE II (Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II) framework and GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) methodology. The guidelines expert panel included expert physicians (clinical and genetic) in HHT from 15 countries, guidelines methodologists, health care workers, health care administrators, patient advocacy representatives, and persons with HHT. During the preconference process, the expert panel generated clinically relevant questions in 6 priority topic areas. A systematic literature search was done in June 2019, and articles meeting a priori criteria were included to generate evidence tables, which were used as the basis for recommendation development. The expert panel subsequently convened during a guidelines conference to conduct a structured consensus process, during which recommendations reaching at least 80% consensus were discussed and approved. RECOMMENDATIONS: The expert panel generated and approved 6 new recommendations for each of the following 6 priority topic areas: epistaxis, gastrointestinal bleeding, anemia and iron deficiency, liver VMs, pediatric care, and pregnancy and delivery (36 total). The recommendations highlight new evidence in existing topics from the first International HHT Guidelines and provide guidance in 3 new areas: anemia, pediatrics, and pregnancy and delivery. These recommendations should facilitate implementation of key components of HHT care into clinical practice.

Curaçao diagnostic criteria for hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia is highly predictive of a pathogenic variant in ENG or ACVRL1 (HHT1 and HHT2).

PURPOSE: Determine the variant detection rate for ENG, ACVRL1, and SMAD4 in individuals who meet consensus (Curaçao) criteria for the clinical diagnosis of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. METHODS: Review of HHT center database for individuals with three or more HHT diagnostic criteria, in whom molecular genetic analysis for ENG, ACVRL1, and SMAD4 had been performed. RESULTS: A variant known or suspected to be causal was detected in ENG in 67/152 (44.1%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 36.0-52.4%), ACVRL1 in 79/152 (52.0%; 95% CI, 43.7-60.1%), and SMAD4 in 2/152 (1.3%; 95% CI, 0.2-4.7%) family probands with definite HHT. Only 4/152 (2.6%; 95% CI, 0.7-6.6%) family probands did not have a variant in one of these genes. CONCLUSION: Previous reports of the variant detection rate for ENG and ACVRL1 in HHT patients have come from laboratories, which receive samples from clinicians with a wide range of expertise in recognizing clinical manifestations of HHT. These studies suggest a significantly lower detection rate (~75-85%) than we have found in patients who meet strictly applied consensus criteria (96.1%). Analysis of SMAD4 adds an additional detection rate of 1.3%. HHT as defined by the Curaçao criteria is highly predictive of a causative variant in either ENG or ACVRL1.

Phenotype of CM-AVM2 caused by variants in EPHB4: how much overlap with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT)?

PURPOSE: EPHB4 variants were recently reported to cause capillary malformation-arteriovenous malformation 2 (CM-AVM2). CM-AVM2 mimics RASA1-related CM-AVM1 and hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), as clinical features include capillary malformations (CMs), telangiectasia, and arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Epistaxis, another clinical feature that overlaps with HHT, was reported in several cases. Based on the clinical overlap of CM-AVM2 and HHT, we hypothesized that patients considered clinically suspicious for HHT with no variant detected in an HHT gene (ENG, ACVRL1, or SMAD4) may have an EPHB4 variant. METHODS: Exome sequencing or a next-generation sequencing panel including EPHB4 was performed on individuals with previously negative molecular genetic testing for the HHT genes and/or RASA1. RESULTS: An EPHB4 variant was identified in ten unrelated cases. Seven cases had a pathogenic EPHB4 variant, including one with mosaicism. Three cases had an EPHB4 variant of uncertain significance. The majority had epistaxis (6/10 cases) and telangiectasia (8/10 cases), as well as CMs. Two of ten cases had a central nervous system AVM. CONCLUSIONS: Our results emphasize the importance of considering CM-AVM2 as part of the clinical differential for HHT and other vascular malformation syndromes. Yet, these cases highlight significant differences in the cutaneous presentations of CM-AVM2 versus HHT.

Characterization of a family mutation in the 5' untranslated region of the endoglin gene causative of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia.

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a vascular disease characterized by nose and gastrointestinal bleeding, telangiectases in skin and mucosa, and arteriovenous malformations in major internal organs. Most patients carry a mutation in the coding region of the endoglin (ENG) or activin A receptor type II-1 (ACVRL1) gene. Nonetheless, in around 15% of patients, sequencing analysis and duplication/deletion tests fail to pinpoint mutations in the coding regions of these genes. In these cases, it has been shown that sequencing of the 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) of ENG may be useful to identify novel mutations in the ENG non-coding region. Here we report the genetic characterization and functional analysis of the heterozygous mutation c.-142A>T in the 5'UTR region of ENG found in a family with several members affected by HHT. This variant gives rise to a new initiation codon of the protein that involves the change in its open reading frame. Transfection studies in monkey cells using endoglin expression vectors demonstrated that c-142A>T mutation results in a clear reduction in the levels of the endoglin protein. These results support the inclusion of the 5'UTR of ENG in the standard genetic testing for HHT to increase its sensitivity.

Localization and age distribution of telangiectases in children and adolescents with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia: A retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The location of telangiectases in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), as set forth in the consensus diagnostic (Curaçao) criteria, is based primarily on adults. OBJECTIVE: Document the locations and numbers of telangiectases in a cohort of pediatric patients with HHT. METHODS: A retrospective chart review using a standardized data collection form for site and number of telangiectases was performed for pediatric patients with HHT (age, 0-18 years) from 2005 to 2016. RESULTS: Of 90 pediatric patients with HHT, 71% had one or more telangiectases. Of all the telangiectases counted (N = 319), cutaneous telangiectases were more common (73%) than oral telangiectases (27%). The hands were the most frequent site, accounting for 33% of all telangiectases. Adolescents were more likely than children to have cutaneous telangiectases (85% vs 50% [Q = 0.005]). The most frequent sites in children younger than 10 years were the hands excluding the fingers (27%), fingers (25%), and face (23%). Only 23% of subjects (21 of 90) presented with multiple (≥3) telangiectases at locations considered characteristic for the current consensus diagnosis guidelines (lips, oral cavity, and fingers). LIMITATIONS: Ascertainment bias based on recruitment. CONCLUSIONS: In this pediatric population, telangiectases at sites not included as "characteristic" by the Curaçao diagnostic criteria were common. The Curaçao criteria in regard to both number and location of telangiectases may be inadequate in the pediatric HHT population.

Genome sequencing reveals a deep intronic splicing ACVRL1 mutation hotspot in Hereditary Haemorrhagic Telangiectasia.

INTRODUCTION: Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder caused by mutations in the genes ENG, ACVRL1, and SMAD4. Yet the genetic cause remains unknown for some families even after exhaustive exome analysis. We hypothesised that non-coding regions of the known HHT genes may harbour variants that disrupt splicing in these cases. METHODS: DNA from 35 individuals with clinical findings of HHT and 2 healthy controls from 13 families underwent whole genome sequencing. Additionally, 87 unrelated cases suspected to have HHT were evaluated using a custom designed next-generation sequencing panel to capture the coding and non-coding regions of ENG, ACVRL1 and SMAD4. Individuals from both groups had tested negative previously for a mutation in the coding region of known HHT genes. Samples were sequenced on a HiSeq2500 instrument and data were analysed to identify novel and rare variants. RESULTS: Eight cases had a novel non-coding ACVRL1 variant that disrupted splicing. One family had an ACVRL1intron 9:chromosome 3 translocation, the first reported case of a translocation causing HHT. The other seven cases had a variant located within a ~300 bp CT-rich 'hotspot' region of ACVRL1intron 9 that disrupted splicing. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the difficulty of interpreting deep intronic variants, our study highlights the importance of non-coding regions in the disease mechanism of HHT, particularly the CT-rich hotspot region of ACVRL1intron 9. The addition of this region to HHT molecular diagnostic testing algorithms will improve clinical sensitivity.

Tissue-specific mosaicism in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia: Implications for genetic testing in families.

Mosaicism in hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) has been previously identified when testing blood samples of HHT patients. We report the first detection of mosaicism not involving blood of a family proband, and discuss implications for genetic testing algorithms in HHT families. Sanger sequencing and large deletion/duplication analysis in a patient with HHT identified no pathogenic variant in ENG, ACVRL1, or SMAD4. Exome sequencing was then performed on this proband, as well as her affected adult child. A pathogenic ENG variant was detected in the proband's affected child, but not in DNA extracted from peripheral blood of the affected parent/proband. Additional tissue samples (saliva and hair bulbs) were obtained from the proband. The variant was not detected in saliva, but was detected in the hair bulb sample (at 33%). This is the first report of an HHT patient with mosaicism in whom the disease-causing mutation was not detected in blood. The molecular findings in this family suggest that the possibility of mosaicism not present or detectable in blood should be considered if a proband with HHT tests "negative" for a mutation in known genes. This occurrence is particularly suspect for families in which the proband does not have a clearly affected parent. This mechanism may explain some patients with classic HHT in whom a pathogenic variant has not been identified in one of the known HHT genes.

Dietary factors and pediatric multiple sclerosis: A case-control study.

BACKGROUND: The role of diet in multiple sclerosis (MS) is largely uncharacterized, particularly as it pertains to pediatric-onset disease. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between dietary factors and MS in children. METHODS: Pediatric MS patients and controls were recruited from 16 US centers (MS or clinically isolated syndrome onset before age 18, <4 years from symptom onset and at least 2 silent lesions on magnetic resonance imaging). The validated Block Kids Food Screener questionnaire was administered 2011-2016. Chi-squared test compared categorical variables, Kruskal-Wallis test compared continuous variables, and multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: In total, 312 cases and 456 controls were included (mean ages 15.1 and 14.4 years). In unadjusted analyses, there was no difference in intake of fats, proteins, carbohydrates, sugars, fruits, or vegetables. Dietary iron was lower in cases ( p = 0.04), and cases were more likely to consume below recommended guidelines of iron (77.2% of cases vs 62.9% of controls, p < 0.001). In multivariable analysis, iron consumption below recommended guidelines was associated with MS (odds ratio = 1.80, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Pediatric MS cases may be less likely to consume sufficient iron compared to controls, and this warrants broader study to characterize a temporal relationship. No other significant difference in intake of most dietary factors was found.

BMP9 mutations cause a vascular-anomaly syndrome with phenotypic overlap with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia.

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), the most common inherited vascular disorder, is caused by mutations in genes involved in the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) signaling pathway (ENG, ACVRL1, and SMAD4). Yet, approximately 15% of individuals with clinical features of HHT do not have mutations in these genes, suggesting that there are undiscovered mutations in other genes for HHT and possibly vascular disorders with overlapping phenotypes. The genetic etiology for 191 unrelated individuals clinically suspected to have HHT was investigated with the use of exome and Sanger sequencing; these individuals had no mutations in ENG, ACVRL1, and SMAD4. Mutations in BMP9 (also known as GDF2) were identified in three unrelated probands. These three individuals had epistaxis and dermal lesions that were described as telangiectases but whose location and appearance resembled lesions described in some individuals with RASA1-related disorders (capillary malformation-arteriovenous malformation syndrome). Analyses of the variant proteins suggested that mutations negatively affect protein processing and/or function, and a bmp9-deficient zebrafish model demonstrated that BMP9 is involved in angiogenesis. These data confirm a genetic cause of a vascular-anomaly syndrome that has phenotypic overlap with HHT.

Appreciating the broad clinical features of SMAD4 mutation carriers: a multicenter chart review.

Heterozygous loss-of-function SMAD4 mutations are associated with juvenile polyposis syndrome and hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. Some carriers exhibit symptoms of both conditions, leading to juvenile polyposis-hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia syndrome. Three families have been reported with connective tissue abnormalities. To better understand the spectrum and extent of clinical findings in SMAD4 carriers, medical records of 34 patients (20 families) from five clinical practices were reviewed. Twenty-one percent of the patients (7/34) had features suggesting a connective tissue defect: enlarged aortic root (n = 3), aortic and mitral insufficiency (n = 2), aortic dissection (n = 1), retinal detachment (n = 1), brain aneurysms (n = 1), and lax skin and joints (n = 1). Juvenile polyposis-specific findings were almost uniformly present but variable. Ninety-seven percent of the patients had colon polyps that were generally pan-colonic and of variable histology and number. Forty-eight percent of the patients (15/31) had extensive gastric polyposis. Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia features, including epistaxis (19/31, 61%), mucocutaneous telangiectases (15/31, 48%), liver arteriovenous malformation (6/16, 38%), brain arteriovenous malformation (1/26, 4%), pulmonary arteriovenous malformation (9/17, 53%), and intrapulmonary shunting (14/23, 61%), were documented in 76% of the patients. SMAD4 carriers should be managed for juvenile polyposis and hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia because symptoms of both conditions are likely yet unpredictable. Connective tissue abnormalities are an emerging component of juvenile polyposis-hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia syndrome, and larger studies are needed to understand these manifestations.

Using nanopore sequencing to identify bacterial infection in joint replacements: a preliminary study.

This project investigates if third-generation genomic sequencing can be used to identify the species of bacteria causing prosthetic joint infections (PJIs) at the time of revision surgery. Samples of prosthetic fluid were taken during revision surgery from patients with known PJIs. Samples from revision surgeries from non-infected patients acted as negative controls. Genomic sequencing was performed using the MinION device and the rapid sequencing kit from Oxford Nanopore Technologies. Bioinformatic analysis pipelines to identify bacteria included Basic Local Alignment Search Tool, Kraken2 and MinION Detection Software, and the results were compared with standard of care microbiological cultures. Furthermore, there was an attempt to predict antibiotic resistance using computational tools including ResFinder, AMRFinderPlus and Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database. Bacteria identified using microbiological cultures were successfully identified using bioinformatic analysis pipelines. Nanopore sequencing and genomic classification could be completed in the time it takes to perform joint revision surgery (2-3 h). Genomic sequencing in this study was not able to predict antibiotic resistance in this time frame, this is thought to be due to a short-read length and low read depth. It can be concluded that genomic sequencing can be useful to identify bacterial species in infected joint replacements. However, further work is required to investigate if it can be used to predict antibiotic resistance within clinically relevant timeframes.

Prevalence, Demographic, and Clinical Factors Associated With Cognitive Dysfunction in Patients With Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is a chronic CNS demyelinating autoimmune disorder targeting the astrocyte antigen aquaporin-4 (AQP4), typically presenting with optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, and brain syndromes. Cognitive dysfunction (CD) in NMOSD is under-recognized and poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and clinical variables associated with CD in NMOSD. METHODS: This observational retrospective study with longitudinal follow-up describes a clinical cohort seen in the Collaborative International Research in Clinical and Longitudinal Experience Study in NMOSD. Serial Montreal Cognitive Assessments (MoCAs) were performed upon enrollment and at 6-month intervals to evaluate longitudinal cognitive function relative to demographic and disease-related factors. We used 2-tailed t test, analysis of variance, the χ2 test, linear regression for univariable and adjusted analyses and simultaneous linear regression and mixed-effects model for multivariable analyses. RESULTS: Thirty-four percent (75/219) of patients met criteria for CD (MoCA <26); 29% (64/219) showed mild dysfunction (MoCA 20-26/30), and 5% (11/219) showed moderate (MoCA <20/30) dysfunction. Patients with less neurologic disability and lower pain scores had higher MoCA scores (95% CI 0.24-0.65 and 95% CI 0.09-0.42, respectively). Patients with at least high school education scored higher on the MoCA (95% CI 2.2-5). When comparing patients dichotomized for CD, patients never on rituximab scored higher than patients only treated with rituximab (p < 0.029). There was no significant association between annualized relapse rate, age, sex, disease duration, AQP4 serostatus or brain lesions, and CD. CD was more pronounced among Black than White patients (95% CI -2.7 to -0.7). Multivariable analysis of serial MoCA did not indicate change (p = 0.715). Descriptive analysis of serial MoCA showed 30% (45/150) of patients with worsening MoCA performance had impaired language and verbal recall. DISCUSSION: To our knowledge, this is the largest study of diverse cohort to investigate CD in patients with NMOSD. Our findings demonstrate 34% of patients with NMOSD experience mild-to-moderate CD, while 30% of patients demonstrated decline on serial testing. The substantial prevalence of CD in this pilot report highlights the need for improved and validated screening tools and comprehensive measures to investigate CD in NMOSD.

The Shunt of It.

Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (PAVMs) are rare and most often identified in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT). We describe a patient with severe hypoxemia and orthodeoxia with imaging findings consistent with PAVMs. Resected lung pathologic findings confirmed the presence of numerous microscopic vascular abnormalities within the right lower lobe that was consistent with diffuse pulmonary arteriovenous shunts. Family history was negative for HHT but was positive for pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) in two second-degree relatives. A vascular malformation gene panel was negative for genes that commonly are associated with HHT but identified a pathogenic variant in the gene encoding bone morphogenetic protein receptor-2 (BMPR2 p.Cys123∗). Pathogenic variants in BMPR2 are a well-known cause of hereditary PAH; there have been several reports to date of patients with PAVMs and PAH. However, this is the first patient to be reported with a pathogenic variant in BMPR2 to have PAVMs in isolation.

Comparing Characteristics and Treatment of Brain Vascular Malformations in Children and Adults with HHT.

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a rare autosomal dominant disease characterized by the development of vascular malformations (VMs) in organs such as the brain and lungs, as well as telangiectases on mucosal surfaces. Prophylactic treatment of organ VMs may prevent potential complications, such as hemorrhage. However, brain VM treatment-surgical resection, embolization, and/or radiosurgery-is not recommended for all patients due to the associated risks. Given the scarcity of data regarding HHT-related brain VM presentation and treatment trends in pediatric patients, we aim to describe the clinical presentations and the patterns of treatment of HHT-related brain VMs in a pediatric cohort, and compare pediatric trends to those of adults. Demographic and clinical data were analyzed in 114 pediatric patients with HHT-related brain VMs and compared with a cohort of 253 adult patients enrolled in the multicenter Brain Vascular Malformation Consortium HHT Project. Our data demonstrated that a higher proportion of pediatric patients with HHT-related brain VMs were symptomatic at presentation (p = 0.004). Moreover, a higher proportion of pediatric patients presented with intracranial hemorrhage (p < 0.001) and seizure (p = 0.002) compared to adult patients. Surgical resection was the most common brain VM treatment modality in both children and adults. We conclude that pediatric patients may be more likely to present with symptoms and complications from brain VMs, supporting the case for screening for brain VMs in children with HHT.

Reply to Eker et al. Comment on "Kilian et al. Comparing Characteristics and Treatment of Brain Vascular Malformations in Children and Adults with HHT. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 2704".

We are grateful to Eker et al. for their thoughtful analysis and response to our publication titled Comparing Characteristics and Treatment of Brain Vascular Malformations in Children and Adults with HHT [...].

Mosaic ACVRL1 and ENG mutations in hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia patients.

Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in the ACVRL1, ENG, and SMAD4 genes. HHT is commonly characterised by small arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) known as telangiectasias of the skin, oral or gastrointestinal mucosa, as well as larger AVMs of solid organs (lungs, liver, brain). However, the manifestations of HHT are extremely variable. Two patients with no family history of HHT and strikingly different clinical presentations, who are mosaic for mutations in the ACVRL1 or ENG gene, are reported here. These cases represent the first report of mosaicism in patients clinically affected with classical HHT and pulmonary arterial hypertension, and suggest the need for awareness of mosaicism when performing clinical testing for this disorder.

Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations: What the Interventional Radiologist Should Know.

Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (PAVMs) are abnormal connections between the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein bypassing the normal capillary bed causing a right-to-left shunt. The majority (80-90%) of PAVMs are associated with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT). PAVMs may be asymptomatic or present with symptoms of hypoxia, shortness of breath, migraines, sequelae of paradoxical embolization, or rupture. Transcatheter embolization has become the standard of care. This article will review the clinical presentation, workup, genetics, imaging findings, embolization, complications, and follow-up for patients with PAVMs.