Photodissociation Dynamics of the Highly Stable ortho-Nitroaniline Cation.

0rtho-Nitroaniline (ONA) is a model for the insensitive high explosive 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) that shares strong hydrogen bonding character between adjacent nitro and amino groups. This work reports femtosecond time-resolved mass spectrometry (FTRMS) measurements and theoretical calculations that explain the high stability of the ONA cation compared with related nitroaromatic molecules. Ab initio calculations found that the lowest-lying electronic excited state of the ONA cation, D1, lies more than 2 eV above the ground state, and the energetic barriers to rearrangement and dissociation reactions exceed this D1 energy. These theoretical results were confirmed by FTRMS pump-probe measurements showing that (1) fragment ions represented less than 30% of the total ion yield when a 1014 W cm-2, 1300 nm, 20 fs pump pulse was used to ionize ONA; and (2) 3.1 eV (400 nm) photons were required to induce dissociation of the ONA cation. Stronger coupling between the ground D0 and excited D4 states of the ONA cation at the geometry of neutral ONA resulted in a transient enhancement of fragment ion yields at <300 fs pump-probe delay times, prior to relaxation of the ONA cation to its optimal geometry.

Ultrafast Dynamics of Nitro-Nitrite Rearrangement and Dissociation in Nitromethane Cation.

We report new insights into the ultrafast rearrangement and dissociation dynamics of nitromethane cation (NM+) using pump-probe measurements, electronic structure calculations, and ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. The "roaming" nitro-nitrite rearrangement (NNR) pathway involving large-amplitude atomic motion, which has been previously described for neutral nitromethane, is demonstrated for NM+. Excess energy resulting from initial population of the electronically excited D2 state of NM+ upon strong-field ionization provides the necessary energy to initiate NNR and subsequent dissociation into NO+. Both pump-probe measurements and molecular dynamics simulations are consistent with the completion of NNR within 500 fs of ionization with dissociation into NO+ and OCH3 occurring ∼30 fs later. Pump-probe measurements indicate that NO+ formation is in competition with the direct dissociation of NM+ to CH3+ and NO2. Electronic structure calculations indicate that a strong D0 → D1 transition can be excited at 650 nm when the C-N bond is stretched from its equilibrium value (1.48 Å) to 1.88 Å. On the other hand, relaxation of the NM+ cation after ionization into D0 occurs in less than 50 fs and results in observation of intact NM+. Direct dissociation of the equilibrium NM+ to produce NO2+ and CH3 can be induced with 650 nm excitation via a weakly allowed D0 → D2 transition.

Quantitative Analysis of Nitrotoluene Isomer Mixtures Using Femtosecond Time-Resolved Mass Spectrometry.

Discrimination of isomers in a mixture is a subject of ongoing interest in biology, pharmacology, and forensics. We demonstrate that femtosecond time-resolved mass spectrometry (FTRMS) effectively quantifies mixtures of ortho-, para-, and meta-nitrotoluenes, the first two of which are common explosive degradation products. The key advantage of the FTRMS approach to mixture quantification lies in the ability of the pump-probe laser control scheme to capture distinct fragmentation dynamics of each nitrotoluene cation isomer on femtosecond timescales, thereby allowing for discrimination of the isomers using only the signal of the parent molecular ion at m/z 137. Upon measurement of reference dynamics of each individual isomer, the molar fractions of binary and ternary mixtures can be predicted to within ∼5 and ∼7% accuracy, respectively.

Using computational chemistry to design pump-probe schemes for measuring nitrobenzene radical cation dynamics.

The electronic potential energy surfaces of the nitrobenzene cation obtained from time-dependent density functional theory and coupled cluster calculations are used to predict the most efficient excitation wavelength for femtosecond time-resolved mass spectrometry measurements. Both levels of theory identify a strongly-coupled transition from the ground state of the nitrobenzene cation with a geometry-dependent oscillator strength, reaching a maximum at 90° C-C-N-O dihedral angle with a corresponding energy gap of ∼2 eV. These results are consistent with the experimental observation in the nitrobenzene cation of a coherent superposition of vibrational states: a vibrational wave packet. Time-resolved measurements using a probe wavelength of 650 nm, nearly resonant with the strong transition, result in enhanced ion yield oscillation amplitudes as compared to excitation with the nonresonant 800 nm wavelength. Analogous behavior is found for the closely related molecules 2- and 4-nitrotoluene. These results demonstrate that computational chemistry can predict the best choice of probe wavelength in time-resolved measurements of vibrational coherent states in molecular cations.

Dissociation of Singly and Multiply Charged Nitromethane Cations: Femtosecond Laser Mass Spectrometry and Theoretical Modeling.

Dissociation pathways of singly- and multiply charged gas-phase nitromethane cations were investigated with strong-field laser photoionization mass spectrometry and density functional theory computations. There are multiple isomers of the singly charged nitromethane radical cation, several of which can be accessed by rearrangement of the parent CH3-NO2 structure with low energy barriers. While direct cleavage of the C-N bond from the parent nitromethane cation produces NO2+ and CH3+, rearrangement prior to dissociation accounts for fragmentation products including NO+, CH2OH+, and CH2NO+. Extensive Coulomb explosion in fragment ions observed at high laser intensity indicates that rapid dissociation of multiply charged nitromethane cations produces additional species such as CH2+, H+, and NO22+.  On the basis of analysis of Coulomb explosion in the mass spectral signals and pathway calculations, sufficiently intense laser fields can remove four or more electrons from nitromethane.

Modification of the third phase in the framework for vertebrate species persistence in urban mosaic environments.

Urbanisation is rapidly transforming natural landscapes with consequences for biodiversity. Little is documented on the response of African wildlife to urbanisation. We reviewed case studies of vertebrate species' responses to urbanisation in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to determine trends. Connected habitat mosaics of natural and anthropogenic green spaces are critical for urban wildlife persistence. We present a novel modification to the final of three phases of the framework described by Evans et al. (2010), which documents this sequence for vertebrate species persistence, based on the perspective of our research. Species in suburbia exhibit an initial phase where behavioural and ecological flexibility, life-history traits and phenotypic plasticity either contribute to their success, or they stay at low numbers. Where successful, the next phase is a rapid increase in populations and distribution; anthropogenic food resources and alternate breeding sites are effectively exploited. The modified third phase either continues to spread, plateau or decline.