Expression of PKM2 in wound keratinocytes is coupled to angiogenesis during skin repair in vivo and in HaCaT keratinocytes in vitro.

An injured skin is rapidly restored in a manner of wound healing. We have previously shown that intact insulin signaling and glucose uptake are fundamental to proper wound closure. Consequently, under exacerbated inflammation, compromised insulin action and glucose uptake lead to impaired healing. However, in spite of the increased attention to cell metabolism during tissue regeneration, metabolic mediators that govern cellular and physiological processes throughout skin repair remained largely elusive. Through assessment of mRNA using real-time PCR and protein blot analysis, we report that healing of cutaneous wounds comprise a boosted expression of genes involved in glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, pentose phosphate shunt, and glutamine anaplerosis. We further focused on the functional role of pyruvate kinase M (PKM) isoenzymes that catalyze the final and rate-limiting step of glycolysis. Whereas the expression of the metabolic constitutively active Pkm1 isozyme remained almost unchanged, Pkm2 is augmented during the inflammatory phase of healing. The immunohistochemistry and RNA in situ hybridization analysis showed a confined Pkm2 expression to keratinocytes of the hyperproliferative epithelium and, to a lesser extent, infiltrating neutrophils and monocytes as well as later on in macrophages. Notably, the expression of Pkm2 in keratinocytes facing the wound bed side colocalized with VEGF expression. The in vitro knockdown of PKM2 in HaCaT keratinocytes using small interfering (si) RNA confirmed an acute role for PKM2 in facilitating the complete induction of VEGF mRNA and protein expression in keratinocytes; this function is mainly HIF-1α independent. KEY MESSAGES: • Wound healing involves activation of glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, pentos-phosphate shunt, and replenishment of tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) cycle through glutamine anaplerosis. • The pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) isoform is upregulated during the inflammatory phase of cutaneous healing, mainly in keratinocytes of hyperproliferative epithelia. • In vivo, the expression of VEGF in wound keratinocytes is colocalized with PKM2. • PKM2 is required for full induction of VEGF in HaCaT keratinocytes in vitro.

Reciprocal abrogation of PKM isoforms: contradictory outcomes and differing impact of splicing signal on CRISPR/Cas9 mediates gene editing in keratinocytes.

The healing of wounded skin is a highly organized process involving a massive cell in- and outflux, proliferation and tissue remodelling. It is well accepted that metabolic constraints such as diabetes mellitus, overweight or anorexia impairs wound healing. Indeed, wound inflammation involves a boost of overall metabolic changes. As wound healing converges inflammatory processes that are also common to transformation, we investigate the functional role of the pro-neoplastic factor pyruvate kinase (PK) M2 and its metabolic active splice variant PKM1 in keratinocytes. Particularly, we challenge the impact of reciprocal ablation of PKM1 or two expression. Here, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing of the PKM gene in HaCaT reveals an unexpected mutational bias at the 3'SS of exon 9, whereas no preference for any particular kind of mutation at exon 10 3' splice, despite the close vicinity (400 nucleotides apart) and sequence similarity between the two sites. Furthermore, as opposed to transient silencing of PKM2, exclusion splicing of PKM2 via genome editing mutually increases PKM1 mRNA and protein expression and compensates for the absence of PKM2, whereas the reciprocal elimination of PKM1 splicing reduces PKM2 expression and impedes cell proliferation, thus unveiling an essential role for PKM1 in growth and metabolic balance of HaCaT keratinocytes.

Mitochondrial Complexome Profiling.

Complexome profiling combines blue native gel electrophoresis (BNE) and quantitative mass spectrometry to define an entire protein interactome of a cell, an organelle, or a biological membrane preparation. The method allows the identification of protein assemblies with low abundance and detects dynamic processes of protein complex assembly. Applications of complexome profiling range from the determination of complex subunit compositions, assembly of single protein complexes, and supercomplexes to comprehensive differential studies between patients or disease models. This chapter describes the workflow of complexome profiling from sample preparation, mass spectrometry to data analysis with a bioinformatics tool.

Aging of Podospora anserina Leads to Alterations of OXPHOS and the Induction of Non-Mitochondrial Salvage Pathways.

The accumulation of functionally impaired mitochondria is a key event in aging. Previous works with the fungal aging model Podospora anserina demonstrated pronounced age-dependent changes of mitochondrial morphology and ultrastructure, as well as alterations of transcript and protein levels, including individual proteins of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). The identified protein changes do not reflect the level of the whole protein complexes as they function in-vivo. In the present study, we investigated in detail the age-dependent changes of assembled mitochondrial protein complexes, using complexome profiling. We observed pronounced age-depen-dent alterations of the OXPHOS complexes, including the loss of mitochondrial respiratory supercomplexes (mtRSCs) and a reduction in the abundance of complex I and complex IV. Additionally, we identified a switch from the standard complex IV-dependent respiration to an alternative respiration during the aging of the P. anserina wild type. Interestingly, we identified proteasome components, as well as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) proteins, for which the recruitment to mitochondria appeared to be increased in the mitochondria of older cultures. Overall, our data demonstrate pronounced age-dependent alterations of the protein complexes involved in energy transduction and suggest the induction of different non-mitochondrial salvage pathways, to counteract the age-dependent mitochondrial impairments which occur during aging.

Sulforaphane exposure impairs contractility and mitochondrial function in three-dimensional engineered heart tissue.

Sulforaphane (SFN) is a phytochemical compound extracted from cruciferous plants, like broccoli or cauliflower. Its isothiocyanate group renders SFN reactive, thus allowing post-translational modification of cellular proteins to regulate their function with the potential for biological and therapeutic actions. SFN and stabilized variants recently received regulatory approval for clinical studies in humans for the treatment of neurological disorders and cancer. Potential unwanted side effects of SFN on heart function have not been investigated yet. The present study characterizes the impact of SFN on cardiomyocyte contractile function in cardiac preparations from neonatal rat, adult mouse and human induced-pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. This revealed a SFN-mediated negative inotropic effect, when administered either acutely or chronically, with an impairment of the Frank-Starling response to stretch activation. A direct effect of SFN on myofilament function was excluded in chemically permeabilized mouse trabeculae. However, SFN pretreatment increased lactate formation and enhanced the mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species accompanied by a significant reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential. Transmission electron microscopy revealed disturbed sarcomeric organization and inflated mitochondria with whorled membrane shape in response to SFN exposure. Interestingly, administration of the alternative energy source l-glutamine to the medium that bypasses the uptake route of pyruvate into the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle improved force development in SFN-treated EHTs, suggesting indeed mitochondrial dysfunction as a contributor of SFN-mediated contractile dysfunction. Taken together, the data from the present study suggest that SFN might impact negatively on cardiac contractility in patients with cardiovascular co-morbidities undergoing SFN supplementation therapy. Therefore, cardiac function should be monitored regularly to avoid the onset of cardiotoxic side effects.

Impaired complex I repair causes recessive Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is the most frequent mitochondrial disease and was the first to be genetically defined by a point mutation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). A molecular diagnosis is achieved in up to 95% of cases, the vast majority of which are accounted for by 3 mutations within mitochondrial complex I subunit-encoding genes in the mtDNA (mtLHON). Here, we resolve the enigma of LHON in the absence of pathogenic mtDNA mutations. We describe biallelic mutations in a nuclear encoded gene, DNAJC30, in 33 unsolved patients from 29 families and establish an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance for LHON (arLHON), which to date has been a prime example of a maternally inherited disorder. Remarkably, all hallmarks of mtLHON were recapitulated, including incomplete penetrance, male predominance, and significant idebenone responsivity. Moreover, by tracking protein turnover in patient-derived cell lines and a DNAJC30-knockout cellular model, we measured reduced turnover of specific complex I N-module subunits and a resultant impairment of complex I function. These results demonstrate that DNAJC30 is a chaperone protein needed for the efficient exchange of complex I subunits exposed to reactive oxygen species and integral to a mitochondrial complex I repair mechanism, thereby providing the first example to our knowledge of a disease resulting from impaired exchange of assembled respiratory chain subunits.

Characterising a homozygous two-exon deletion in UQCRH: comparing human and mouse phenotypes.

Mitochondrial disorders are clinically and genetically diverse, with isolated complex III (CIII) deficiency being relatively rare. Here, we describe two affected cousins, presenting with recurrent episodes of severe lactic acidosis, hyperammonaemia, hypoglycaemia and encephalopathy. Genetic investigations in both cases identified a homozygous deletion of exons 2 and 3 of UQCRH, which encodes a structural complex III (CIII) subunit. We generated a mouse model with the equivalent homozygous Uqcrh deletion (Uqcrh-/- ), which also presented with lactic acidosis and hyperammonaemia, but had a more severe, non-episodic phenotype, resulting in failure to thrive and early death. The biochemical phenotypes observed in patient and Uqcrh-/- mouse tissues were remarkably similar, displaying impaired CIII activity, decreased molecular weight of fully assembled holoenzyme and an increase of an unexpected large supercomplex (SXL ), comprising mostly of one complex I (CI) dimer and one CIII dimer. This phenotypic similarity along with lentiviral rescue experiments in patient fibroblasts verifies the pathogenicity of the shared genetic defect, demonstrating that the Uqcrh-/- mouse is a valuable model for future studies of human CIII deficiency.

MIC26 and MIC27 cooperate to regulate cardiolipin levels and the landscape of OXPHOS complexes.

Homologous apolipoproteins of MICOS complex, MIC26 and MIC27, show an antagonistic regulation of their protein levels, making it difficult to deduce their individual functions using a single gene deletion. We obtained single and double knockout (DKO) human cells of MIC26 and MIC27 and found that DKO show more concentric onion-like cristae with loss of CJs than any single deletion indicating overlapping roles in formation of CJs. Using a combination of complexome profiling, STED nanoscopy, and blue-native gel electrophoresis, we found that MIC26 and MIC27 are dispensable for the stability and integration of the remaining MICOS subunits into the complex suggesting that they assemble late into the MICOS complex. MIC26 and MIC27 are cooperatively required for the integrity of respiratory chain (super) complexes (RCs/SC) and the F1Fo-ATP synthase complex and integration of F1 subunits into the monomeric F1Fo-ATP synthase. While cardiolipin was reduced in DKO cells, overexpression of cardiolipin synthase in DKO restores the stability of RCs/SC. Overall, we propose that MIC26 and MIC27 are cooperatively required for global integrity and stability of multimeric OXPHOS complexes by modulating cardiolipin levels.

Bi-allelic pathogenic variants in NDUFC2 cause early-onset Leigh syndrome and stalled biogenesis of complex I.

Leigh syndrome is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, most commonly observed in paediatric mitochondrial disease, and is often associated with pathogenic variants in complex I structural subunits or assembly factors resulting in isolated respiratory chain complex I deficiency. Clinical heterogeneity has been reported, but key diagnostic findings are developmental regression, elevated lactate and characteristic neuroimaging abnormalities. Here, we describe three affected children from two unrelated families who presented with Leigh syndrome due to homozygous variants (c.346_*7del and c.173A>T p.His58Leu) in NDUFC2, encoding a complex I subunit. Biochemical and functional investigation of subjects' fibroblasts confirmed a severe defect in complex I activity, subunit expression and assembly. Lentiviral transduction of subjects' fibroblasts with wild-type NDUFC2 cDNA increased complex I assembly supporting the association of the identified NDUFC2 variants with mitochondrial pathology. Complexome profiling confirmed a loss of NDUFC2 and defective complex I assembly, revealing aberrant assembly intermediates suggestive of stalled biogenesis of the complex I holoenzyme and indicating a crucial role for NDUFC2 in the assembly of the membrane arm of complex I, particularly the ND2 module.