Effects of psychological interventions on systemic levels of inflammatory biomarkers in humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

The purpose of the present investigation was to systematically review randomized controlled trials examining the effects of psychological interventions on inflammatory biomarkers in adult populations and to quantitatively analyze those effects by meta-analysis. Two researchers independently searched key electronic databases, selected eligible publications, extracted data, and evaluated methodological quality. Nineteen randomized controlled trials examining a total of 1510 participants were included. The overall combined effect size from pre to post psychological intervention on pro-inflammatory biomarker levels was statistically significant, showing an attenuating effect, although of a small magnitude (s' g = 0.15, p = .008, CI [0.04-0.26]). However, this effect was not maintained into the follow-up period (g < -0.01, p = .964, CI [-0.19-0.18]). Looking at the individual biomarkers assessed across studies, only C-reactive protein (CRP) was found to significantly decrease following psychological intervention. A number of moderation analyses were conducted, none of which reached statistical significance. However, the numerically largest - and significant - within-group effect size was obtained for the group of studies that had preselected participants based on elevated psychological distress (g = 0.29, p = .047). In conclusion, psychological interventions appear efficacious in reducing pro-inflammatory biomarker levels. Future studies are recommended to carefully select individuals based on inflammatory (e.g., the presence of low-grade inflammation) and/or psychological (e.g., psychological distress) criteria.

When worry may be good for you: Worry severity and limbic-prefrontal functional connectivity in late-life generalized anxiety disorder.

BACKGROUND: Late-life generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is one of the most common anxiety disorders in older adults. However, its neural markers have received relatively little attention. In this study, we explored the association between worry severity and limbic-prefrontal connectivity during emotional reactivity in late-life GAD. METHODS: We recruited 16 anxious (GAD) and 20 non-anxious (HC) older adults to perform the faces/shapes emotional reactivity task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We investigated the functional connectivity of both the amygdala and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST) with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) using generalized psychophysiological interaction (gPPI) analysis. We tested for (1) group differences in connectivity, (2) association between worry severity and connectivity, and (3) interaction between group and worry severity and its association with connectivity. RESULTS: Amygdala-PFC and BNST-PFC functional connectivity were associated with worry severity in an inverse U-shape, and was independent of depression severity, global anxiety, neuroticism, and general cognitive function. LIMITATIONS: Our limitations include slightly skewed PSWQ distributions, lack of non-anxious individuals with high worry, small sample size, and low depression comorbidity in a sample of late-life GAD that may not generalize to GAD in younger populations. CONCLUSIONS: This suggests that moderate worry is associated with maximum engagement of the limbic-PFC connectivity, while severe worry is associated with failure of the limbic-PFC emotional regulation circuit. This may explain the aberrant and exaggerated responses to negative stimuli observed in participants with pathological worry.

The impact of comorbid mood and personality disorders in the cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder.

The present review examined the effect of comorbid major depressive disorder and personality disorder on the outcome of cognitive-behavioral interventions for panic disorder. Panic disorder patients often present with these comorbid conditions, but for the most part, treatment studies have paid little attention to them. Most studies on the effects of comorbidity on treatment outcome address pharmacological treatment. However, there is a growing literature on the effect of additional disorders on the outcome of cognitive-behavioral interventions for panic disorder. Findings from the studies of comorbidity with depression are equivocal, possibly reflecting inconsistencies in measurement methodology across studies. However, personality psychopathology was found to exert a detrimental effect on the outcome of cognitive-behavioral treatment for panic disorder. Further research is necessary to elucidate the impact of these concurrent conditions on cognitive-behavioral treatment for panic disorder. It is suggested that studies utilizing cognitive-behavioral treatment routinely examine the influence of comorbid conditions on treatment outcome.

Distinguishing obsessive features and worries: the role of thought-action fusion.

Obsessions are a key feature of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and chronic worry is the cardinal feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). However, these two cognitive processes are conceptually very similar, and there is a need to determine how they differ. Recent studies have attempted to identify cognitive processes that may be differentially related to obsessive features and worry. In the current study we proposed that (1) obsessive features and worry could be differentiated and that (2) a measure of the cognitive process thought-action fusion would distinguish between obsessive features and worry, being strongly related to obsessive features after controlling for the effects of worry. These hypotheses were supported in a sample of 173 undergraduate students. Thought-action fusion may be a valuable construct in differentiating between obsessive features and worry.

Comorbid generalized anxiety disorder in primary social phobia: symptom severity, functional impairment, and treatment response.

As many as 50% of patients with a primary anxiety disorder may meet criteria for an additional anxiety disorder. However, there is insufficient research on the cooccurrence of the anxiety disorders, although investigations of this nature may facilitate our understanding of their cause, phenomenology, and treatment. The present study examined the occurrence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) among patients with social phobia (SP) compared with SP patients without GAD. Of 122 treatment-seeking patients meeting DSM-III-R criteria for SP, 29 (23.8%) also met criteria for an additional diagnosis of GAD. SP patients with comorbid GAD demonstrated greater severity on measures of social anxiety and avoidance, general anxiety, cognitive (but not somatic) symptoms of anxiety, depressed mood, functional impairment, and overall psychopathology. Group differences remained significant when comorbidity with other anxiety and mood disorders was controlled. The content of worry among the SP patients with GAD was not specific to social concerns and appeared similar to the reported content of worry in samples of patients with primary GAD. Nevertheless, SP patients with and without GAD responded similarly to cognitive-behavioral group therapy for social phobia. Implications for the understanding and treatment of comorbid SP and GAD are discussed.

Social anxiety and emotion knowledge: a meta-analysis.

It has been proposed that social anxiety is associated with poor emotion knowledge (EK), although studies have revealed mixed results. The aim of the present paper was to systematically investigate the association between EK and both non-clinical and clinical social anxiety by means of meta-analyses. Systematic, electronic database literature searches were performed, and meta-analyses were conducted on 43 included studies. Results showed that social anxiety was negatively associated with EK. The strongest association was found between clinical levels of social anxiety and the ability to understand one's own emotions (intrapersonal EK). Regarding interpersonal EK, a subgroup analysis showed that social anxiety was more strongly associated with a decreased ability to understand complex emotions than to recognize basic emotions. No differences were found between patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) and patients with other anxiety disorders. Although a large between study heterogeneity and differing methodologies may prevent any firm conclusions from being reached, the results indicate that poor EK may play an important role in SAD, and that it could be beneficial to target EK in the treatment of SAD.

Differential patterns of physical symptoms and subjective processes in generalized anxiety disorder and unipolar depression.

Given the substantial comorbidity between generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and unipolar depressive disorders (UDDs), some have suggested that these disorders be combined in future editions of the DSM. However, decisions regarding nosology should not only account for current manifestations of symptom profiles, but also the potential diagnostic utility of associated characteristics, which, given past research, may suggest greater distinctiveness between these disorder classes. In the present investigation, we examined the role of one-item indices of physical, emotional/motivational, and cognitive symptoms in differentiating GAD from UDDs. We assessed these symptoms with one-item measures in order to provide an initial examination of the viability of these constructs as diagnostic criteria. In Study 1, in an unselected college sample, muscle pains and aches, gastrointestinal symptoms, emotion intensity, and intolerance of uncertainty were associated with GAD symptoms; conversely, low positive affect was associated with UDDs symptoms. In Study 2, we extended these findings to a clinical population and found that muscle pains and aches, positive affect, goal motivation, emotion intensity, and intolerance of uncertainty were higher in GAD than in UDDs.

Anxiety and cognitive efficiency: differential modulation of transient and sustained neural activity during a working memory task.

According to the processing-efficiency hypothesis (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007), anxious individuals are thought to require greater activation of brain systems supporting cognitive control (e.g.,dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; DLPFC) in order to maintain equivalent performance to nonanxious subjects. A recent theory of cognitive control (Braver, Gray, & Burgess, 2007) has proposed that reduced cognitive efficiency might occur as a result of changes in the temporal dynamics of DLPFC recruitment. In this study, we used a mixed blocked/ event-related fMRI design to track transient and sustained activity in DLPFC while high- and low-anxious participants performed a working memory task. The task was performed after the participants viewed videos designed to induce neutral or anxiety-related moods. After the neutral video, the high-anxious participants had reduced sustained but increased transient activation in working memory areas, in comparison with low-anxious participants. The high-anxious group also showed extensive reductions in sustained activation of "default-network" areas (possible deactivation). After the negative video,the low-anxiety group shifted their activation dynamics in cognitive control regions to resemble those of the high-anxious group. These results suggest that reduced cognitive control in anxiety might be due to a transient, rather than sustained, pattern of working memory recruitment. Supplementary information for this study may be found at www.psychonomic.org/archive.

Situational panic attacks: impact on distress and impairment among patients with social phobia.

To investigate the impact of situational panic attacks in social phobia, this study examined symptoms of social anxiety and avoidance, dysfunction, and associated psychopathology among individuals with social phobia who experience situational panic attacks, individuals meeting criteria for both social phobia and panic disorder, and individuals with social phobia but no report of panic attacks. One hundred thirty-three persons with a principal diagnosis of social phobia were evaluated. Fifty-seven individuals, who experienced panic attacks exclusively in the context of feared social situations, were compared to 15 individuals with social phobia who also experienced spontaneous panic attacks and met criteria for panic disorder and 61 social phobics who did not experience panic attacks. Compared to social phobics without panic, social phobics with situational panic attacks demonstrated greater fear and avoidance of social situations and higher ratings of somatic anxiety, were more distressed and impaired by their social phobias, and reported higher levels of anxiety sensitivity and hopelessness than social phobics without panic. Additionally, social phobia patients with situational panic but without panic disorder reported greater hopelessness than participants with comorbid panic disorder. In regression analyses, situational panic attacks accounted for significant unique variance beyond that contributed by the presence of comorbid panic disorder. Situational panic attacks are common in social phobia. They are associated with significant and unique disturbances compared either to the absence of panic attacks or to panic attacks in the context of comorbid panic disorder and deserve attention in both research and treatment of social phobia.