On the faradaic selectivity and the role of surface inhomogeneity during the chlorine evolution reaction on ternary Ti-Ru-Ir mixed metal oxide electrocatalysts.

The faradaic selectivity of the chlorine evolution reaction (CER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) on the industrially important Ti-Ru-Ir mixed metal oxide is discussed. Absolute evolution rates as well as volume fractions of Cl2 and O2 were quantified using differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS), while the catalyst surface redox behavior was analyzed using cyclic voltammetry. The spatial inhomogeneity of the surface catalytic reaction rate was probed using Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM). Although the nature of the competition between electrochemical discharging of chloride ions and water molecules remains elusive on a molecular scale, new insights into the spatial reactivity distribution of the CER and OER were obtained. Oxidation of water is the initial step in corrosion and concomitant deactivation of the oxide electrodes; however, at the same time the nature of interaction between the oxide surface and water is used as a rational indicator of selectivity and catalytic activity. An experimental procedure was established that would allow the study of selectivity of a variety of different catalyst materials using polycrystalline electrode surfaces.

Electrocatalysis using porous nanostructured materials.

The performance of electrochemical reactions depends strongly on the morphology and structure of the employed catalytic electrodes. Nanostructuring of the electrode surface represents a powerful tool to increase the electrochemically active surface area of the electrodes. Moreover, it can also facilitate faster diffusive mass transport inside three-dimensional electrodes. This minireview describes recent trends in the development of synthesis routes for porous nanostructured electrode materials and discusses the respective important electrocatalytic applications. The use of structure-directing agents will play a decisive role in the design and synthesis of improved catalysts.

Accelerating the early angiogenesis of tissue engineering constructs in vivo by the use of stem cells cultured in matrigel.

In tissue engineering research, generating constructs with an adequate extent of clinical applications remains a major challenge. In this context, rapid blood vessel ingrowth in the transplanted tissue engineering constructs is the key factor for successful incorporation. To accelerate the microvascular development in engineered tissues, we preincubated osteoblast-like cells as well as mesenchymal stem cells or a combination of both cell types in Matrigel-filled PLGA scaffolds before transplantation into the dorsal skinfold chambers of balb/c mice. By the use of preincubated mesenchymal stem cells, a significantly accelerated angiogenesis was achieved. Compared with previous studies that showed a decisive increase of vascularization on day 6 after the implantation, we were able to halve this period and achieve explicitly denser microvascular networks 3 days after transplantation of the tissue engineering constructs. Thereby, the inflammatory host tissue response was acceptable and low, comparable with former investigations. A co-incubation of osteoblast-like cells and stem cells showed no additive effect on the density of the newly formed microvascular network. Preincubation of mesenchymal stem cells in Matrigel is a promising approach to develop rapid microvascular growth into tissue engineering constructs. After the implantation into the host organism, scaffolds comprising stem cells generate microvascular capillary-like structures exceptionally fast. Thereby, transplanted stem cells likely differentiate into vessel-associated cells. For this reason, preincubation of mesenchymal stem cells in nutrient solutions supporting different steps of angiogenesis provides a technique to promote the routine use of tissue engineering in the clinic.

Role of water in the chlorine evolution reaction at RuO(2)-based electrodes--understanding electrocatalysis as a resonance phenomenon.

The reaction path of the Cl(2) evolution reaction (CER) was investigated by combining electrochemical and spectroscopic methods. It is shown that oxidation and reconstruction of the catalyst surface during CER is a consequence of the interaction between RuO(2) and water. The state of the RuO(2) surface during the electrochemical reaction was analyzed in situ by using Raman spectroscopy to monitor vibrations of the crystal lattice of RuO(2) and changes in the surface concentration of the adsorbed species as a function of the electrode potential. The role of the solvent was recognized as being crucial in the formation of an oxygen-containing hydrophilic layer, which is a key prerequisite for electrocatalytic Cl(2) formation. Water (more precisely the OH adlayer) is understood not just as a medium that allows adsorption of intermediates, but also as an integral part of the intermediate formed during the electrochemical reaction. New insights into the general understanding of electrocatalysis were obtained by utilizing the vibration frequencies of the crystal lattice as a dynamic catalytic descriptor instead of thermodynamic descriptors, such as the adsorption energy of intermediates. Interpretation of the derived "volcano" curve suggests that electrocatalysis is governed by a resonance phenomenon.