Sensory nerve conduction stimulus threshold measurements of the infraorbital nerve and its applicability as a diagnostic tool in horses with trigeminal-mediated headshaking.

BACKGROUND: To determine whether sensory nerve conduction stimulus threshold measurements of the infraorbital nerve are able to differentiate horses with idiopathic trigeminal-mediated headshaking (i-TMHS) from healthy horses and from horses with secondary trigeminal-mediated headshaking (s-TMHS). In a prospective trial, headshaking horses were examined using a standardized diagnostic protocol, including advanced diagnostics such as computed tomography and 3-Tesla-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to differentiate s-TMHS from i-TMHS. Clinically healthy horses served as controls. Within this process, patients underwent general anesthesia, and the minimal sensory nerve conduction stimulus threshold (SNCT) of the infraorbital nerve was measured using a bipolar concentric needle electrode. Sensory nerve action potentials (SNAP) were assessed in 2.5-5 mA intervals. Minimal SNCT as well as additional measurements were calculated. RESULTS: In 60 horses, SNAP could be recorded, of which 43 horses had i-TMHS, six had suspected s-TMHS, three horses had non-facial headshaking, and eight healthy horses served as controls. Controls had a minimal SNCT ≥ 15 mA, whereas 14/43 horses with i-TMHS and 2/6 horses with s-TMHS showed a minimal SNCT ≤ 10 mA. Minimal SNCT ≤ 10 mA showed 100% specificity to distinguish TMHS from controls, but the sensitivity was only 41%. CONCLUSION: A minimal SNCT of the infraorbital nerve ≤ 10 mA was able to differentiate healthy horses from horses with TMHS. Nevertheless, a higher minimal SNCT did not exclude i-TMHS or s-TMHS and minimal SNCT does not distinguish s-TMHS from i-TMHS.

Re-evaluating the placebo response in recent canine dietary epilepsy trials.

The placebo response is a common phenomenon. Limited evidence is available about its magnitude in canine epilepsy trials, even though it can significantly influence the efficacy evaluation of new treatments. It was hypothesised that the placebo response is diminished when epilepsy trials are conducted in a prospective crossover design. Seizure data spanning six months from three previous multicenter epilepsy studies were analysed. The monthly seizure frequency of 60 dogs diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy was calculated, comparing baseline data with placebo treatment. Furthermore, differentiation was made between dogs randomised to the placebo group early (Phase 1: first 3 months) or later during the study (Phase 2: second 3 months).The analysis did not reveal any placebo response in terms of monthly seizure frequency. Instead, an increase was noted during the placebo treatment period, with a mean of 2.95 seizures per month compared to 2.30 seizures per month before study entry (p = 0.0378). Additionally, a notable phase effect was observed. Dogs receiving the placebo in the second study phase exhibited a significant increase in monthly seizure frequency compared to baseline (p = 0.0036). Conversely, no significant difference from baseline was observed for dogs receiving the placebo in the first study phase. These findings underscore the considerable variability in placebo responses observed in trials for canine epilepsy, contrasting with previous limited data. The identified phase effect should be carefully considered in the design and evaluation of canine epilepsy trials to ensure a more accurate assessment of efficacy for new treatments.

A six-month prospective, randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover, dietary trial design to investigate the potential of psychobiotics on seizure semiology and comorbidities in canine epilepsy: study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Epilepsy is the most common chronic neurological disease in dogs. More than two-thirds of these patients suffer from associated behavioural comorbidities. The latter could have their origin in partially overlapping pathomechanisms, with the intestinal microbiome as a potential key link between them. The current arsenal of drugs for epilepsy management remains limited. Most canine patients continue to have seizures despite treatment and the occurrence of comorbidities is not sufficiently addressed, limiting quality of life of affected dogs and owners. Therefore, novel additional epilepsy management options are urgently needed. The microbiome-gut-brain axis may serve as a new target for the development of innovative multimodal therapeutic approaches to overcome current shortcomings in epilepsy management. METHODS: A six-month prospective, randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover, dietary trial was designed to investigate the potential of the psychobiotic Bifidobacterium longum on behavioural comorbidities in canine epilepsy. Seizure semiology will be evaluated as a secondary outcome measure. Thirty-four privately owned dogs are planned to be included in the ongoing study meeting the following inclusion criteria: Dogs displaying increased anxiety/fear behaviour since the start of the idiopathic epilepsy. Tier II confidence level of the International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force for the diagnosis of idiopathic epilepsy, with a maximum seizure interval of 3 month and a minimum of three generalised seizures within that period and chronically treated with at least one antiseizure drug without improvement in seizure frequency Each dog will receive the allocated supplement (probiotic vs. placebo) alongside its normal diet for a 3-month period. After a three-week wash out period, the second phase starts by administering the respective other supplement for another 3 months. DISCUSSION: The current study considers modern high-quality standards for epilepsy medication trials. Common biasing effects should be limited to a possible minimum (regression-to-the mean effect, placebo effect, observer effect), ensuring a high validity and accuracy of the acquired results, thus enabling a representative nature of the efficacy of Bifidobacterium longum as add-on supplement for dogs suffering from epilepsy and its comorbidities. This publication should provide a description of the study procedure and data acquisition methods, including prognosed statistical analysis.

Meningioma and associated cerebral infarction in three dogs.

BACKGROUND: In dogs, meningiomas mostly cause chronic progressive clinical signs due to slow tumor growth. CASE PRESENTATION: In contrast, three dogs were presented with the history of chronic generalized tonic-clonic seizures and peracute deterioration with sudden onset of neurological deficits in accordance with an extensive unilateral forebrain lesion. Magnetic resonance imaging examinations of the dogs revealed a well-delineated extraaxial T2W hyperintense mass in the rostral forebrain with homogeneous contrast enhancement. Additionally, an intraaxial, well-demarcated, unilateral lesion was apparent in the parenchyma supplied by the middle cerebral artery. In two cases, necropsy revealed meningothelial meningioma in the rostral fossa and marked eosinophilic neuronal necrosis, a sign of ischemia, focal malacia, edema and gliosis in the temporal lobe and hippocampus because of a focal thrombosis of the middle cerebral artery. In the third case symptomatic treatment resulted in improvement of clinical signs enabling a good quality of life for the patient. CONCLUSIONS: In dogs with structural epilepsy caused by meningioma, acute deterioration of clinical signs can be associated with ischemic infarctions as a potential complication.

Canine Electroencephalography Electrode Positioning Using a Neuronavigation System.

BACKGROUND: Studies in people suggest that surface electroencephalography (EEG) electrode positions vary across participants and that the consistency of these positions is electrode-, region-, and examiner-dependent. The aim was to investigate the variability in EEG electrode positions to their underlying cortical regions (CRs) in dogs using a neuronavigation system and evaluate the use of said system in electrode positioning, via a cadaver study with 22 dogs. CT scans and MRI were performed for each dog. These were uploaded onto a neuronavigation system where the desired CRs were annotated. The electrode positions were marked on the heads, which were positioned using only a previously established guide and anatomical landmarks. Using the neuronavigation system, alignment or deviations from the desired CRs were noted. Fifty-three percent of all the marked electrode positions showed an alignment with the desired CRs. Thirty-three percent showed no alignment, and fourteen percent showed partial alignment. Three percent deviated to different cortical lobes. Placement via the neuronavigation system enabled reliable and replicable electrode positioning and CR alignment. The standard for EEG electrode placement in dogs is subjected to a high variance. A neuronavigation system can aid in more precise electrode placements. Specific gyri cannot accurately be evaluated on EEG without imaging-controlled electrode placement.

Comparing standard screening questionnaires of canine behavior for assessment of cognitive dysfunction.

Background: Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is a common, yet underdiagnosed neurodegenerative disease affecting older dogs. Treatment is most effective when started early, so identifying mild cognitive decline in the earlier stages of the disease is considered important. Hypothesis/objective: To compare the results of three different standard screening questionnaires [Canine Dementia Scale (CADES), Canine Cognitive Assessment Scale (CCAS), and Canine Cognitive Dysfunction Rating Scale (CCDR)] for CCD diagnosis. Trainability, pain sensitivity, and fear were additionally assessed with the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) in order to evaluate associations between the three dementia scales and behavior. Methods: An online survey containing all the mentioned questionnaires was designed for and distributed among owners of elderly dogs. Results: Data from 597 dogs were analyzed. Overall, the scores of the three CCD questionnaires correlated well with each other, especially those of the CADES and CCAS. The CADES was more sensitive in identifying dogs with already mild to moderate cognitive impairment, while the others classified them as still undergoing normal aging. CCD scores increased for all questionnaires with age with spatial orientation being a key feature in CCD development. Trainability assessed with the C-BARQ decreased significantly with severity of CCD signs, while pain sensitivity increased. Fear and anxiety was pronounced in animals with mild but not with severe CCD. These associations based on the C-BARQ were more clearly observable in relation to CADES and CCDR than CCAS. Conclusion/clinical relevance: The choice of screening questionnaire impacts the evaluation of cognitive status and severity of CCD. Thresholds for severity classification differ significantly and may have an impact on reliable assessment. Further longitudinal studies are required to determine which of the questionnaires investigated in this study is best suited for early detection of CCD.

Gluten serological testing in various dog breeds with paroxysmal dyskinesia.

Background: Paroxysmal gluten-sensitive dyskinesia is a subtype of movement disorder classified as canine paroxysmal dyskinesia (cPD), which until now has only been described in Border Terriers (BT). Objectives: Our aim was to report cPD with positive gluten serology in dog breeds other than BT. Animals: Thirty-one client-owned dogs with suspected cPD were examined in this study. Methods: The hospital records of the dogs where the serum was tested for modified gliadin peptide immunoglobulin G (gliadin IgG) and tissue transglutaminase-2 immunoglobulin A (transglutaminase-2 IgA) were studied. A total of 31 dogs were presented to the clinic with cPD. A work-up consistent with Tier 1 or Tier 2 confidence levels for canine epilepsy was undertaken in all dogs. The dogs' diets and episode descriptions or videos in 16/31 cases were additionally studied. A follow-up was held to inquire about the dogs' wellbeing and response to the diet changes. Results: Fourteen of the 31 dogs tested positive for gluten sensitivity with either gliadin IgG or transglutaminase-2 IgA or both ratios elevated. In seven dogs, serology was classified as questionable with gliadin IgG or transglutaminase ratios mildly elevated. Ten dogs tested negative. According to the owners' reports, five of the dogs that tested positive had no more episodes after changing to a strictly gluten-free diet, with one of the dogs relapsing twice after being fed treats containing gluten. Three dogs had a reduction in episode frequency of >50%, and two dogs had shorter and less intense episodes. Conclusion: A considerable subset of dog breeds presented for presumed cPD showed laboratory signs of gluten sensitivity and responded to a gluten-free diet.

"Resistance Is Futile": A Pilot Study into Pseudoresistance in Canine Epilepsy.

Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder in veterinary practice, complicated by frequent occurrence of medication-resistant epilepsy. In human medicine, it has been noted that some patients with medication-resistant epilepsy have in fact other reasons for their apparent medication-resistance. The aim of this retrospective study was to describe the issue of pseudoresistance using as an example a population of dogs presented with presumed medication-resistant epilepsy and provide an in-depth review of what is known in human medicine about pseudoresistant epilepsy. One-hundred fifty-two cases were identified with medication-resistant epilepsy, of which 73% had true medication-resistant epilepsy and 27% patients had pseudoresistance. Low serum anti-seizure medication levels were the most common cause of pseudoresistance, present in almost half of the cases (42%), followed by inadequate choice of drugs or dosages (22%), misclassification (22%) or misdiagnosis (9%) of epilepsy and poor compliance (9%). All cases of pseudoresistance, except for one, responded to a modification of the initial therapy protocol. Pseudoresistance can bias clinical trials, misinform the clinical decision-making process, delay diagnosis and treatment, and misinform owners about their pets' prognosis. A substantial proportion of these cases can have improvement of their seizure frequency or achieve seizure freedom upon modification of their therapeutic protocol.

Investigating Owner Use of Dietary Supplements in Dogs with Canine Cognitive Dysfunction.

Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is becoming increasingly recognized in veterinary medicine, as dogs live longer and with CCD being highly prevalent among the elderly dog population. Various studies have shown that diet and dietary supplementation can positively influence the clinical signs of CCD, especially if given at an early stage. The aim of this study was to investigate owner use of dietary supplements (DSs) in dogs with age-related behavioral changes. An observational study based on an online questionnaire for owners of dogs with age-related behavioral changes was performed. Out of a total of 394 owners who completed the survey, after noticing age-related behavioral changes, over half of the dogs received DSs (54%), whereas only 8% reported changing their dog's base diet. The most used DS was fish oil (48%). The use of DSs should be discussed with and monitored by veterinary surgeons since many geriatric patients have multi-morbidities, may have specific nutritional requirements and receive multi-faceted medications.

Out-of-hospital rescue medication in dogs with emergency seizure disorders: an owner perspective.

Background: Emergency seizure disorders such as status epilepticus and cluster seizures are unlikely to cease spontaneously while prolonged seizure activity become progressively more resistant to treatment. Early administration of rescue medication in canine epileptic patients, in particular benzodiazepines, at seizure onset by the owners can be life-saving and brain protecting. Clinical studies in dogs evaluating the use of rescue medication in hospital environment exist, however, the owner perspective has not been assessed to date. Hypothesis or objectives: To evaluate the use of rescue medication in dogs with seizure emergencies by the owner at home. Method: Observational study based on online surveys of owners of dogs with emergency seizure disorders. Results: The questionnaire was answered by 1,563 dog owners, of which 761 provided complete and accurate answers suitable for analysis. Of these, 71% administered diazepam, 19% midazolam, 6% levetiracetam, 3% lorazepam, and 4% more than one rescue or other medication. Overall, the success rates based on owners' perspective for intranasal midazolam and rectal diazepam were 97 and 63%, respectively. Owners reported a compliance level of 95 and 66% for intranasal midazolam and rectal diazepam administration, respectively. Conclusions and clinical importance: Even though rectal diazepam was the most used rescue medication in this survey population, intranasal midazolam was perceived by the owners as a better option regarding effectiveness, time to seizure cessation and owner compliance.

The Postictal Phase in Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy: Semiology, Management, and Impact on the Quality of Life from the Owners' Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Dogs with idiopathic epilepsy experience not only the preictal and ictal seizure phases but also the postictal phase. To date, research has primarily focused on the preictal and ictal semiology and therapeutic control of ictal events. Research into the postictal phase's pathophysiology, as a therapeutic target and how it impacts the quality of life, is sparse across different species. Interestingly, even if anecdotally, owners report the postictal period being an impactful negative factor on their quality of life as well as their dog's quality of life. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: We aimed to assess the semiology and the impact of postictal signs on the quality of life of owners and dogs. METHOD: This observational study was carried out using surveys of owners of dogs with seizure disorders. RESULTS: The questionnaire was filled out by 432 dog owners, 292 of whom provided complete responses that could be analysed. More than nine out of ten owners (97%) reported the presence of various postictal clinical signs. The dog's and the owner's quality of life was mainly affected by specific postictal signs, i.e., disorientation (dog: 31%; owner: 20%), compulsive walking (dog: 17%; owner: 22%), ataxia (dog: 12%; owner: 6%), and blindness (dog: 17%; owner: 10%). Nearly 61% of the owners felt that the severity of postictal signs was moderate or severe. Rescue antiseizure medications did not have an effect on controlling the postictal signs based on 71% of the responders. In contrast, 77% of the respondents reported that other measures such as rest, physical closeness, and a quiet and dark environment had a positive impact on the postictal phase. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Overall, this survey shows that specific postictal signs are common and have a notable impact on the perceived quality of life of both dogs and their owners. According to the respondents, antiseizure medication might have no influence on the postictal phase in most cases, in contrast to other nonpharmacological measures. Further research on the management of the postictal phase is vital for improving the quality of life of dogs with seizure disorders and their owners.

Quantitative analysis of magnetic resonance images for characterization of blood-brain barrier dysfunction in dogs with brain tumors.

BACKGROUND: Blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability can be assessed quantitatively using advanced imaging analysis. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: Quantification and characterization of blood-brain barrier dysfunction (BBBD) patterns in dogs with brain tumors can provide useful information about tumor biology and assist in distinguishing between gliomas and meningiomas. ANIMALS: Seventy-eight hospitalized dogs with brain tumors and 12 control dogs without brain tumors. METHODS: In a 2-arm study, images from a prospective dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE; n = 15) and a retrospective archived magnetic resonance imaging study (n = 63) were analyzed by DCE and subtraction enhancement analysis (SEA) to quantify BBB permeability in affected dogs relative to control dogs (n = 6 in each arm). For the SEA method, 2 ranges of postcontrast intensity differences, that is, high (HR) and low (LR), were evaluated as possible representations of 2 classes of BBB leakage. BBB score was calculated for each dog and was associated with clinical characteristics and tumor location and class. Permeability maps were generated, using the slope values (DCE) or intensity difference (SEA) of each voxel, and analyzed. RESULTS: Distinctive patterns and distributions of BBBD were identified for intra- and extra-axial tumors. At a cutoff of 0.1, LR/HR BBB score ratio yielded a sensitivity of 80% and specificity of 100% in differentiating gliomas from meningiomas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Blood-brain barrier dysfunction quantification using advanced imaging analyses has the potential to be used for assessment of brain tumor characteristics and behavior and, particularly, to help differentiating gliomas from meningiomas.

Case Report: Anti-GABA A Receptor Encephalitis in a Dog.

Autoantibodies against neurotransmitter receptors detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum are increasingly recognized in people with human autoimmune encephalitis causing severe neurological deficits, such as seizures and behavioral abnormalities. This case report describes the first encephalitis associated with antibodies against the γ-aminobutyric acid-A receptor (GABAAR) in a dog. A young male intact Cavalier King Charles Spaniel was presented with recent onset of initial multiple generalized tonic-clonic seizures progressing into a status epilepticus. Interictally, he showed alternating stupor and hyperexcitability, ataxia, pleurothotonus and circling behavior to the left side. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain showed breed-specific anatomical abnormalities. Standard CSF analysis was unremarkable. Despite treatment with multiple antiseizure medications (ASMs) seizures and behavior abnormalities sustained. Immunotherapy with dexamethasone was started on the fifth day after disease manifestation. This led to rapid improvement of clinical signs. An extensive antibody search in CSF and serum demonstrated a neuropil staining pattern on a tissue-based assay compatible with GABAAR antibodies. The diagnosis was confirmed by binding of serum and CSF antibodies to GABAAR transfected Human Embryonic Kidney cells. The serum titer was 1:320, the CSF titer 1:2. At the control visit 4.5 weeks after start of immunotherapy, the dog was clinically normal. The GABAAR antibody titer in serum had strongly decreased. The antibodies were no longer detectable in CSF. Based on clinical presentation and testing for GABAAR binding antibodies, this describes the first veterinary patient with an anti-GABAAR encephalitis with a good outcome following ASM and corticosteroid treatment.

Urinary Neurotransmitter Patterns Are Altered in Canine Epilepsy.

Epilepsy is the most common chronic neurological disease in humans and dogs. Epilepsy is thought to be caused by an imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. Intact neurotransmitters are transported from the central nervous system to the periphery, from where they are subsequently excreted through the urine. In human medicine, non-invasive urinary neurotransmitter analysis is used to manage psychological diseases, but not as yet for epilepsy. The current study aimed to investigate if urinary neurotransmitter profiles differ between dogs with epilepsy and healthy controls. A total of 223 urine samples were analysed from 63 dogs diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy and 127 control dogs without epilepsy. The quantification of nine urinary neurotransmitters was performed utilising mass spectrometry technology. A significant difference between urinary neurotransmitter levels (glycine, serotonin, norepinephrine/epinephrine ratio, ɤ-aminobutyric acid/glutamate ratio) of dogs diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy and the control group was found, when sex and neutering status were accounted for. Furthermore, an influence of antiseizure drug treatment upon the urinary neurotransmitter profile of serotonin and ɤ-aminobutyric acid concentration was revealed. This study demonstrated that the imbalances in the neurotransmitter system that causes epileptic seizures also leads to altered neurotransmitter elimination in the urine of affected dogs. Urinary neurotransmitters have the potential to serve as valuable biomarkers for diagnostics and treatment monitoring in canine epilepsy. However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken to understand better the association between neurotransmitter deviations in the brain and urine neurotransmitter concentrations in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy.

Steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis in dogs in Germany: Are there epidemiological or clinical factors influencing recurrence rate?

OBJECTIVE: Steroid-responsive meningitis arteritis (SRMA) is one of the most common inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system in dogs. The present study examined breed and sex predisposition factors based on the population of dogs in Germany as well as epidemiological and clinical factors regarding the relapse rate of SRMA. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data of 153 dogs with SRMA (SRMA) were analysed retrospectively in this multicentre study. It was investigated whether some dog breeds that suffer from SRMA were disproportionately more often (n ≥ 5) represented when compared to the total population of dogs in Germany. Furthermore it was examined which sex is affected more often. Data provided by "Verband für das deutsche Hundewesen" (VDH) and "Tasso e. V." was used as reference data of the total population. The following factors were investigated with regard to the occurrence of one or more relapses: signalment; body weight; age at first presentation; time period between last vaccination and onset of clinical signs; clinical signs and timepoint of the first SRMA manifestation; results of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis at first presentation (nucleated cell count and differentiation, protein concentration); immunglobulin A and C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations in serum and CSF; immunosuppressive medication; follow-up data including response to therapy, occurrence of relapses and mortality including reasons, i. e. due to the disease, therapy or euthanasia. RESULTS: The breed had a statistically significant influence on the development of SRMA (p < 0.05). Beagles and Boxers were affected more often by SRMA than other breeds in relation to the total population in Germany. Relapses occurred in 29.4 % of the 153 dogs of this study. In contrast to the development of SRMA, in which male dogs have a significantly increased risk of developing SRMA (p < 0.05), female dogs are more likely to relapse (p = 0.02). Patients on prednisolone monotherapy had fewer relapses than those with prednisolone and azathioprine in combination (p < 0.05). Younger age (p = 0.071) und lower CRP concentrations (p = 0.081) at first presentation were tentatively associated with a higher incidence of relapses. CONCLUSION: The determined breed and sex predispositions support the diagnosis of SRMA arteritis and confirm previous observations. This study allows a more accurate explanation to owners about the risk of relapse.

Measurement of Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin Concentration in Canine Cerebrospinal Fluid and Serum and Its Involvement in Neuroinflammation.

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated Lipocalin (NGAL) is a glycoprotein involved in inflammation acting as an acute phase protein and chemokine as well as a regulator of iron homeostasis. NGAL has been shown to be upregulated in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice. Increased NGAL concentration in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and expression in central nervous system (CNS) has been described in human neuroinflammatory disease such as multiple sclerosis and neuropsychiatric lupus as well as in bacterial meningitis. We aimed to investigate involvement of NGAL in spontaneous canine neuroinflammation as a potential large animal model for immune- mediated neurological disorders. A commercially available Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for detection of canine NGAL was validated for use in canine CSF. Concentration in CSF and serum of canine patients suffering from steroid- responsive meningitis- arteriitis (SRMA), Meningoencephalitis of unknown origin (MUO), different non- inflammatory CNS disease and control dogs were compared. Relationship between NGAL concentration in CSF and serum and inflammatory parameters in CSF and blood (IgA concentration, total nucleated cell count (TNCC), protein content) as well as association with erythrocytes in CSF, duration of illness, plasma creatinine and urinary leucocytes were evaluated. In dogs with SRMA and MUO, CSF concentration of NGAL was significantly higher than in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy, compressive myelopathy, intracranial neoplasia and SRMA in remission (p < 0.0001). Patients with acute SRMA had significantly higher levels of NGAL in CSF than neurologically normal controls (p < 0.0001). Serum NGAL concentrations were significantly higher in dogs with SRMA than in patients with myelopathy and intracranial neoplasia (p < 0.0001). NGAL levels in CSF were strongly positively associated with IgA concentration (rSpear= 0.60116, p < 0.0001), TNCC (rSpear= 0.65746, p < 0.0001) and protein content (rSpear= 0.73353, p < 0.0001) in CSF. It can be measured in CSF of healthy and diseased dogs. Higher concentrations in canine patients with SRMA as well as positive association with TNCC in CSF suggest an involvement in pro-inflammatory pathways and chemotaxis in SRMA. High serum levels of NGAL in serum of SRMA patients in different stages of disease might reflect the systemic character of the disease.

Intervertebral disc herniation in two coatis (Nasua nasua) and postoperative laminectomy membrane formation.

Magnetic resonance imaging revealed spinal cord compression due to intervertebral disc herniation of Hansen type I and II in the thoracolumbar vertebral column in two middle-aged coatis (Nasua nasua) with chronic progressive paraparesis. Surgical treatment included hemilaminectomy and partial corpectomy in one and dorsal laminectomy in the other coati. Both coatis recovered well after surgery. One showed unremarkable gait 6 and 15 months post surgery, while the other one suffered from recurrence of paraparesis leading to euthanasia because of deterioration of neurological signs 20 months after the first surgery. Necropsy revealed formation of a laminectomy membrane compressing the spinal cord. Histopathological signs of spinal cord injury and findings of degenerative processes in the intervertebral disc were comparable to those described in dogs. In conclusion, this case report shows for the first time that surgical intervention seems to be a useful and safe treatment in chronic intervertebral disc herniation in coatis, but relapses are possible.