What is research? Educators' conceptions and alignment with United States federal policies.

This study draws on two communities theory to address two major research questions related conceptions of research in educational practice and policy. First, how do educators conceptualize research? Second, to what extent do educators' conceptions of research align with recent U.S. federal educational policies? We conducted 90 semi-structured interviews with educators in the United States, asking them what comes to mind when they think of research. We used open, axial, and selective coding to characterize educators' conceptions of research. We also compared educators' conceptions of research to two U.S. federal educational policies that define scientifically based research and evidence-based interventions. Findings indicate that educators and policies defined research in similar ways, but each included some unique characteristics. Implications from the study include the need for increased communication between federal policy-makers and educators and improved reporting by researchers to better attend to the needs of educators and policymakers.

What Types of Brokerage Bridge the Research-Practice Gap? The Case of Public School Educators.

The presence of a research-practice gap is recognized across multiple fields including education, psychology, and public health. In this paper, we examine which of five structural types of brokerage are most and least effective in bridging this research-practice gap in the context of education. Using a small world survey design, we tracked how a statewide random sample of 247 K-12 principals and superintendents in Michigan seek information about social skills programs from brokering individuals and organizations. We find that some triadic brokerage structures are more effective than others in closing the communication gap between practitioners and researchers. Specifically, educators relying on itinerant brokerage, which circulates information between members of the same community, were five times less likely to obtain information from a researcher. In contrast, educators relying on representative or liaison brokerage, which facilitate information transfer between members of different communities, were more than twice as likely to obtain information from a researcher. We conclude by discussing implications for the development of interventions designed to facilitate information sharing between practitioners and researchers.

The BOND Framework: A Practical Application of Visual Communication Design and Marketing to Advance Evaluation Reporting.

Despite growing interest in data visualization and graphically aided reporting, the evaluation literature could benefit from additional guidance on systematically integrating visual communication design and marketing into comprehensive communication strategies to improve data dissemination. This article describes the role of targeted communication strategies-based on visual communications, design, and marketing theory-in producing more effective reports. In evaluation practice, well-synthesized and translated reports often require the integration of data from multiple sources, methods, and/or time points to communicate complex findings in ways that elicit productive responses. Visual communication strategies, such as project branding or designing actionable tools with marketing principles in mind, can be applied to optimize effective reporting of complex evaluation findings. This article references a longitudinal, mixed-method evaluation of public school administrators in Michigan to illustrate the application of a systematic communication design framework to produce several graphically aided project materials and subsequent findings reports.

Multiple Audiences for Encouraging Research Use: Uncovering a Typology of Educators.

PURPOSE: We apply diffusion of innovations theory to examine two key research questions designed to inform efforts to improve the research-practice gap in education: (1) Are there distinct types of educators that differ in their prioritization of the compatibility, observability, complexity, relative advantage, and trialability of research? and (2) Are educators' roles or context associated with their categorization in this typology? RESEARCH METHODS: Using semi-structured interview data in two Michigan counties from intermediate school district staff (N=24), district central office staff (N=18), principals (N=22), and school building staff (N=23), we first used directed content analysis to code for mentions of compatibility, observability, complexity, relative advantage, and trialability. Next, using the coded data, we conducted a hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis and follow-up cross-tabulations to assess whether cluster memberships were associated with educators' roles or county context. FINDINGS: Educators in our sample could be categorized in one of five clusters distinguished primarily by different patterns of prioritization of the compatibility, observability, and complexity of research. Membership in these clusters did not vary by role but did vary by county, suggesting the importance of context for educators' perceptions of research. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE: These findings suggest that narrowing the research-practice gap in education will require attending to multiple audiences of educators with distinct priorities that guide their perceptions and use of educational research and evidence-based practices.

Just Google it: Measuring schools' use of research evidence with internet search results.

Measuring the use of research evidence (URE) by schools has become a central of education researchers. However, it has proven challenging due to low response rates, social desirability bias, and costly or time consuming data collection methods. To overcome these challenges and meet the needs of research focused on URE, this paper introduces a non-reactive archival measure: Archival Search of Use of Research Evidence (ASURE). ASURE counts references to research or evidence on a school's or school district's website to capture the extent of its rhetorical use of research evidence. After illustrating the collection of ASURE in all public school districts in Michigan (N = 595), we use data on these districts to show that ASURE is reliable and valid, and thus offers a promising new strategy for measuring URE in schools. We conclude by considering future steps for exploring ASURE not simply as a measure of URE in schools, but instead as a measurement strategy for assessing URE in a broad range of organizational contexts.

What Makes Research Useful for Public School Educators?

In this study, we explored the extent to which educators discuss and prioritize Rogers' (Diffusion of innovations, The Free Press: New York, 1995) five attributes of innovations-relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialability-in the context of research use. Using a directed content analysis of 54 semi-structured interviews and exemplar quotes, we describe how educators mentioned compatibility most frequently, but also commonly invoked observability and complexity in their discussions of research use. Our results also revealed key differences between educators in executive and non-executive roles. We discuss the implications of our findings for closing the research-practice gap in school-based mental health services and psychosocial interventions.

Making or buying evidence: Using transaction cost economics to understand decision-making in public school districts.

We propose transaction cost economics theory as a tool for exploring when school administrators rely on information from two types of sources: internal sources like their own colleagues, and external sources like researchers and government agencies. The theory's application is illustrated in a comparative case study of two public school districts in Michigan. Consistent with the theory's predictions, the smaller, homogeneous, high-performing district used more external sources of information, while the larger, diverse, low-performing district used internal sources of information. We conclude by identifying some strengths and limitations of the theory, which can serve as starting points for debate.

Brokering the Research-Practice Gap: A typology.

Despite widespread recognition of a research-practice gap in multiple service sectors, less is known about how pre-existing communication channels facilitate the flow of information between researchers and practitioners. In the current study, we applied an existing typology of brokerage developed by Gould and Fernandez (Sociol Methodol 19:89-126, 1989) to examine what types of brokerage facilitate information spread between researchers and educational practitioners. Specifically, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 19 school administrators and staff in two public school districts regarding their experiences searching for information about instructional, health, and social skills programs. Using deductive content analysis, we found evidence of all five types of brokerage identified by Gould and Fernandez (1989). However, only three types of brokerage-gatekeepers, representatives, and liaisons-were involved in the flow of information between school administrators and researchers. Moreover, information transfer often occurred in longer chains that involved multiple, distinct types of brokerage. We conclude with the broad implications of our findings for narrowing the research-practice gap by improving researchers' dissemination efforts and practitioners' search for information.

Relationship among the physiologic channel interactions, spectral-ripple discrimination, and vowel identification in cochlear implant users.

The hypothesis of this study was that broader patterns of physiological channel interactions in the local region of the cochlea are associated with poorer spectral resolution in the same region. Electrically evoked compound action potentials (ECAPs) were measured for three to six probe electrodes per subject to examine the channel interactions in different regions across the electrode array. To evaluate spectral resolution at a confined location within the cochlea, spectral-ripple discrimination (SRD) was measured using narrowband ripple stimuli with the bandwidth spanning five electrodes: Two electrodes apical and basal to the ECAP probe electrode. The relationship between the physiological channel interactions, spectral resolution in the local cochlear region, and vowel identification was evaluated. Results showed that (1) there was within- and across-subject variability in the widths of ECAP channel interaction functions and in narrowband SRD performance, (2) significant correlations were found between the widths of the ECAP functions and narrowband SRD thresholds, and between mean bandwidths of ECAP functions averaged across multiple probe electrodes and broadband SRD performance across subjects, and (3) the global spectral resolution reflecting the entire electrode array, not the local region, predicts vowel identification.

Engineering cryoelectrospun elastin-alginate scaffolds to serve as stromal extracellular matrices.

Scaffold-based regenerative strategies that emulate physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) of the region of interest can influence cell growth and function. Existing ECM-mimicking scaffolds, including nanofiber (NF) mats, sponges, hydrogels, and NF-hydrogel composites are unable to simultaneously mimic typical composition, topography, pore size, porosity, and viscoelastic properties of healthy soft-tissue ECM. In this work, we used cryoelectrospinning to fabricate 3D porous scaffolds with minimal fibrous backbone, pore size and mechanical properties similar to soft-tissue connective tissue ECM. We used salivary glands as our soft tissue model and found the decellularized adult salivary gland (DSG) matrix to have a fibrous backbone, 10-30µm pores, 120 Pa indentation modulus, and ∼200 s relaxation half time. We used elastin and alginate as natural, compliant biomaterials and water as the solvent for cryoelectrospinning scaffolds to mimic the structure and viscoelasticity of the connective tissue ECM of the DSG. Process parameters were optimized to produce scaffolds with desirable topography and compliance similar to DSG, with a high yield of >100 scaffolds/run. Using water as solvent, rather than organic solvents, was critical to generate biocompatible scaffolds with desirable topography; further, it permitted a green chemistry fabrication process. Here, we demonstrate that cryoelectrospun scaffolds (CESs) support penetration of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts 250-450µm into the scaffold, cell survival, and maintenance of a stromal cell phenotype. Thus, we demonstrate that elastin-alginate CESs mimic many structural and functional properties of ECM and have potential for future use in regenerative medicine applications.

An Organotypic Mammary Duct Model Capturing Matrix Mechanics-Dependent Ductal Carcinoma In Situ Progression.

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a precancerous stage breast cancer, where abnormal cells are contained within the duct, but have not invaded into the surrounding tissue. However, only 30-40% of DCIS cases are likely to progress into an invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC), while the remainder are innocuous. Since little is known about what contributes to the transition from DCIS to IDC, clinicians and patients tend to opt for treatment, leading to concerns of overdiagnosis and overtreatment. In vitro models are currently being used to probe how DCIS transitions into IDC, but many models do not take into consideration the macroscopic tissue architecture and the biomechanical properties of the microenvironment. In this study, we modeled an organotypic mammary duct as a channel molded in a collagen matrix and lined with basement membrane. By adjusting the concentration of collagen (4 and 8 mg/mL), we modulated the stiffness and morphological properties of the matrix and examined how an assortment of breast cells, including the isogenic MCF10 series that spans the range from healthy to aggressive, behaved within our model. We observed distinct characteristics of breast cancer progression such as hyperplasia and invasion. Normal mammary epithelial cells (MCF10A) formed a single-cell layer on the lumen surface, whereas the most aggressive (MCF10CA1) were several cell layers thick. The model captured collagen concentration-dependent protrusive behaviors by the MCF10A and MCF10CA1 cells, as well as a known invasive cell line (MDA-MB-231). The MCF10A and MCF10CA1 cells extended protrusions into the lower collagen concentration matrix, while the MDA-MB-231 cells fully invaded matrices of either collagen concentration but to a greater distance in the higher collagen concentration matrix. Our results show that the model can recapitulate different stages of breast cancer progression and that the MCF10 series is adaptable to physiologically relevant in vitro studies, demonstrating the potential of both the model and cell lines to elucidate key factors that may contribute to understanding the transition from DCIS to IDC. Impact statement The success of early preventative measures for breast cancer has left patients susceptible to overdiagnosis and overtreatment. Limited knowledge of factors driving an invasive transition has inspired the development of in vitro models that accurately capture this phenomenon. However, current models tend to neglect the macroscopic architecture and biomechanical properties of the mammary duct. In this study, we introduce an organotypic model that recapitulates the cylindrical geometry of the tissue and the altered stroma seen in tumor microenvironments. Our model was able to capture distinct features associated with breast cancer progression, demonstrating its potential to uncover novel insights into disease progression.

Growth of tumor emboli within a vessel model reveals dependence on the magnitude of mechanical constraint.

Tumor emboli-aggregates of tumor cells within vessels-pose a clinical challenge as they are associated with increased metastasis and tumor recurrence. When growing within a vessel, tumor emboli are subject to a unique mechanical constraint provided by the tubular geometry of the vessel. Current models of tumor emboli use unconstrained multicellular tumor spheroids, which neglect this mechanical interplay. Here, we modeled a lymphatic vessel as a 200 µm-diameter channel in either a stiff or soft, bioinert agarose matrix to create a vessel-like constraint model (VLCM), and we modeled colon or breast cancer tumor emboli with aggregates of HCT116 or SUM149PT cells, respectively. The stiff matrix VLCM constrained the tumor emboli to the cylindrical channel, which led to continuous growth of the emboli, in contrast to the growth rate reduction that unconstrained spheroids exhibit. Emboli morphology in the soft matrix VLCM, however, was dependent on the magnitude of mechanical mismatch between the matrix and the cell aggregates. In general, when the elastic modulus of the matrix of the VLCM was greater than the emboli (EVLCM/Eemb > 1), the emboli were constrained to grow within the channel, and when the elastic modulus of the matrix was less than the emboli (0 < EVLCM/Eemb < 1), the emboli bulged into the matrix. Due to a large difference in myosin II expression between the cell lines, we hypothesized that tumor cell aggregate stiffness is an indicator of cellular force-generating capability. Inhibitors of myosin-related force generation decreased the elastic modulus and/or increased the stress relaxation of the tumor cell aggregates, effectively increasing the mechanical mismatch. The increased mechanical mismatch after drug treatment was correlated with increased confinement of tumor emboli growth along the channel, which may translate to increased tumor burden due to the increased tumor volume within the diffusion distance of nutrients and oxygen.

Approaches to measuring use of research evidence in K-12 Settings: A systematic review.

An increased focus on the use of research evidence (URE) in K-12 education has led to a proliferation of instruments measuring URE in K-12 education settings. However, to date, there has been no review of these measures to inform education researchers' assessment of URE. Here, we systematically review published quantitative measurement instruments in K-12 education. Findings suggest that instruments broadly assess user characteristics, environmental characteristics, and implementation and practices. In reviewing instrument quality, we found that studies infrequently report reliability, validity, and demographics about the instruments they develop or use. Future work evaluating and developing instruments should explore environmental characteristics that affect URE, generate items that match up with URE theory, and follow standards for establishing instrument reliability and validity.

Large-scale patterning of single cells and cell clusters in hydrogels.

Biophysical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are known to play a significant role in cell behavior. To gain a better understanding of the effects of the biophysical microenvironment on cell behavior, the practical challenge is longitudinally monitoring behavioral variations within a population to make statistically powerful assessments. Population-level measurements mask heterogeneity in cell responses, and large-scale individual cell measurements are often performed in a one-time, snapshot manner after removing cells from their matrix. Here we present an easy and low-cost method for large-scale, longitudinal studies of heterogeneous cell behavior in 3D hydrogel matrices. Using a platform we term "the drop-patterning chip", thousands of cells were simultaneously transferred from microwell arrays and fully embedded, only using the force of gravity, in precise patterns in 3D collagen I or Matrigel. This method allows for throughputs approaching 2D patterning methods that lack phenotypic information on cell-matrix interactions, and does not rely on special equipment and cell treatments that may result in a proximal stiff surface. With a large and yet well-organized group of cells captured in 3D matrices, we demonstrated the capability of locating selected individual cells and monitoring cell division, migration, and proliferation for multiple days.

Using Microphone Technology to Improve Speech Perception in Noise in Children with Cochlear Implants.

BACKGROUND: Cochlear implant (CI) users are affected more than their normal hearing (NH) peers by the negative consequences of background noise on speech understanding. Research has shown that adult CI users can improve their speech recognition in challenging listening environments by using dual-microphone beamformers, such as adaptive directional microphones (ADMs) and wireless remote microphones (RMs). The suitability of these microphone technologies for use in children with CIs is not well-understood nor widely accepted. PURPOSE: To assess the benefit of ADM or RM technology on speech perception in background noise in children and adolescents with cochlear implants (CIs) with no previous or current use of ADM or RM. RESEARCH DESIGN: Mixed, repeated measures design. STUDY SAMPLE: Twenty (20) children, ten (10) CI users (mean age 14.3 yrs) who used Advanced Bionics HiRes90K implants with research Naida processors, and ten (10) NH age-matched controls participated in this prospective study. INTERVENTION: CI users listened with an ear-canal level microphone, T-Mic (TM), an ADM, and a wireless RM at different audio-mixing ratios. Speech understanding with five microphone settings (TM 100%, ADM, RM + TM 50/50, RM + TM 75/25, RM 100%) was evaluated in quiet and in noise. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Speech perception ability was measured using children's spondee words to obtain a speech recognition threshold for 80% accuracy (SRT80%) in 20-talker babble where the listener sat in a sound booth 1 m (3.28') from the target speech (front) and noise (behind) to test five microphone settings (TM 100%, ADM, RM + TM 50/50, RM + TM 75/25, RM 100%). Group performance-intensity functions were computed for each listening condition to show the effects of microphone configuration with respect to signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). A difference score (CI Group minus NH Group) was computed to show the effect of microphone technology at different SNRs relative to NH. Statistical analysis using a repeated-measures analysis of variance evaluated the effects of the microphone configurations on SRT80% and performance at SNRs. Between-groups analysis of variance was used to compare the CI group with the NH group. RESULTS: The speech recognition was significantly poorer for children with CI than children with NH in quiet and in noise when using the TM alone. Adding the ADM or RM provided a significant improvement in speech recognition for the CI group over use of the TM alone in noise (mean dB advantage ranged from 5.8 for ADM to 16 for RM100). When children with CI used the RM75 or RM100 in background babble, speech recognition was not statistically different from the group with NH. CONCLUSION: Speech recognition in noise performance improved with the use of ADM and RM100 or RM75 over TM-only for children with CIs. Alhough children with CI remain at a disadvantage as compared with NH children in quiet and more favorable SNRs, microphone technology can enhance performance for some children with CI to match that of NH peers in contexts with negative SNRs.

Evaluation of AISI Type 304 stainless steel as a suitable surface material for evaluating the efficacy of peracetic acid-based disinfectants against Clostridium difficile spores.

Disinfectants play an important role in controlling microbial contamination on hard surfaces in hospitals. The effectiveness of disinfectants in real life can be predicted by laboratory tests that measure killing of microbes on carriers. The modified Quantitative Disk Carrier Test (QCT-2) is a standard laboratory method that employs American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Type 430 stainless steel carriers to measure hospital disinfectant efficacy against Clostridium difficile spores. The formation of a rust-colored precipitate was observed on Type 430 carriers when testing a peracetic acid (PAA)-based disinfectant with the QCT-2 method. It was hypothesized that the precipitate was indicative of corrosion of the Type 430 carrier, and that corrosion could impact efficacy results. The objective of this study was to compare the suitability of AISI Type 430 to Type 304 stainless steel carriers for evaluating PAA-based disinfectants using the QCT-2 method. Type 304 is more corrosion-resistant than Type 430, is ubiquitous in healthcare environments, and is used in other standard methods. Suitability of the carriers was evaluated by comparing their impacts on efficacy results and PAA degradation rates. In efficacy tests with 1376 ppm PAA, reductions of C. difficile spores after 5, 7 and 10 minutes on Type 430 carriers were at least about 1.5 log10 lower than reductions on Type 304 carriers. In conditions simulating a QCT-2 test, PAA concentration with Type 430 carriers was reduced by approximately 80% in 10 minutes, whereas PAA concentration in the presence of Type 304 carriers remained stable. Elemental analyses of residues on each carrier type after efficacy testing were indicative of corrosion on the Type 430 carrier. Use of Type 430 stainless steel carriers for measuring the efficacy of PAA-based disinfectants should be avoided as it can lead to an underestimation of real life sporicidal efficacy. Type 304 stainless steel carriers are recommended as a suitable alternative.

Defined topologically-complex protein matrices to manipulate cell shape via three-dimensional fiber-like patterns.

Culturing cells in three-dimensional (3D) environments has been shown to significantly influence cell function, and may provide a more physiologically relevant environment within which to study the behavior of specific cell types. 3D tissues typically present a topologically complex fibrous adhesive environment, which is technically challenging to replicate in a controlled manner. Micropatterning technologies have provided significant insights into cell-biomaterial interactions, and can be used to create fiber-like adhesive structures, but are typically limited to flat culture systems; the methods are difficult to apply to topologically-complex surfaces. In this work, we utilize crack formation in multilayered microfabricated materials under applied strain to rapidly generate well-controlled and topologically complex 'fiber-like' adhesive protein patterns, capable of supporting cell culture and controlling cell shape on three-dimensional patterns. We first demonstrate that the features of the generated adhesive environments such as width, spacing and topology can be controlled, and that these factors influence cell morphology. The patterning technique is then applied to examine the influence of fiber structure on the nuclear morphology and actin cytoskeletal structure of cells cultured in a nanofibrous biomaterial matrix.

Small worlds or worlds apart? Using network theory to understand the research-practice gap / ¿Mundos pequeños o mundos separados? Usando la teoría de redes para comprender la brecha investigación-práctica

The implementation of effective community interventions can be challenging for many reasons, including financial and time costs, lack of infrastructure, local contextual variations, and barriers to fidelity. But, prior to all of these is the challenge of limited information exchange between the researchers developing interventions and the practitioners implementing them, or the so-called research-practice gap. In this paper, we use network theory and review a dozen small world experiments to understand the research-practice gap, identifying three key lessons: (1) spatial and social distances are related to the severity of the gap, (2) social boundaries may lead to echo chambers and closed loops, and (3) wider gaps reduce the likelihood of successful information exchange. From these lessons, we recommend that researchers and practitioners should rely on the assistances of information brokers who know people they do not know and who are different from themselves

La implementación de intervenciones comunitarias efectivas es un reto por muchas razones, que van desde los costes financieros y de tiempo a la falta de infraestructura, la diversidad de contextos locales y los obstáculos a la fidelidad. Pero antes de todo esto se cuenta el intercambio limitado de información entre los investigadores que desarrollan intervenciones y los profesionales que las implementan, que suele denominarse la 'brecha entre la investigación y la práctica'. En este artículo utilizamos la teoría de redes y revisamos una docena de experimentos de mundo pequeño para comprender la brecha ciencia-práctica, obteniendo tres lecciones fundamentales: (1) las distancias espaciales y sociales se relacionan con la severidad de la brecha, (2) las fronteras sociales pueden traducirse en cámaras de eco y circuitos cerrados, y (3) las brechas más amplias reducen la probabilidad de un intercambio de información con éxito. A partir de estas lecciones se recomienda que los investigadores y los profesionales recurran a la ayuda de intermediarios que conocen a personas que ellos no conocen y que son diferentes a ellos

Fabrication of reconfigurable protein matrices by cracking.

The interface between extracellular matrices and cells is a dynamic environment that is crucial for regulating important cellular processes such as signal transduction, growth, differentiation, motility and apoptosis. In vitro cellular studies and the development of new biomaterials would benefit from matrices that allow reversible modulation of the cell adhesive signals at a scale that is commensurate with individual adhesion complexes. Here, we describe the fabrication of substrates containing arrays of cracks in which cell-adhesive proteins are selectively adsorbed. The widths of the cracks (120-3,200 nm) are similar in size to individual adhesion complexes (typically 500-3,000 nm) and can be modulated by adjusting the mechanical strain applied to the substrate. Morphology of cells can be reversibly manipulated multiple times through in situ adjustment of crack widths and hence the amount of the cell-adhesive proteins accessible to the cell. These substrates provide a new tool for assessing cellular responses associated with exposure to matrix proteins.