Identification of metabolomic biomarkers for drug-induced acute kidney injury in rats.

Nephrotoxicity is a common side effect observed during both nonclinical and clinical drug development investigations. The present study aimed to identify metabolomic biomarkers that could provide early and sensitive indication of nephrotoxicity in rats. Metabolomic analyses were performed using capillary electrophoresis-time-of-flight mass spectrometry on rat plasma collected at 9 and 24 h after a single dose of 2-bromoethylamine or n-phenylanthranilic acid and at 24 h after 7 days of repeated doses of gentamicin, cyclosporine A or cisplatin. Among a total of 169 metabolites identified, 3-methylhistidine (3-MH), 3-indoxyl sulfate (3-IS) and guanidoacetate (GAA) were selected as candidate biomarkers. The biological significance and reproducibility of the observed changes were monitored over time in acute nephrotoxicity model rats treated with a single dose of cisplatin, with the glomerular filtration rate monitored by determination of creatinine clearance. Increased plasma levels of 3-MH and 3-IS were related to a decline in glomerular filtration due to a renal failure. In contrast, the decrease in plasma GAA, which is synthesized from arginine and glycine in the kidneys, was considered to reflect decreased production due to renal malfunction. Although definitive validation studies are required to confirm their usefulness and reliability, 3-MH, 3-IS and GAA may prove to be valuable plasma biomarkers for monitoring nephrotoxicity in rats.

Change of drug excretory pathway by CCl4-induced liver dysfunction in rat.

Liver dysfunction affects the pharmacokinetics of drugs. The liver plays an important role in drug excretion as well as drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics. In the present study, the relationship between changes in the cefmetazole (CMZ) excretory pathway and the degree of liver dysfunction induced by CCl(4) treatment was investigated. CMZ is mainly excreted as an unchanged form in feces in control rats. Depending on the serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), urinary CMZ excretion was increased, whereas fecal CMZ excretion was decreased in rat with liver dysfunction. The AUC of CMZ in rats with severe liver dysfunction was approximately 2-fold higher than that in control rats. Since drug transporters could be involved in drug excretion, changes in the expression of representative hepatic drug transporters in liver dysfunction were investigated by rat DNA microarray. Basolateral solute carrier transporters such as Ntcp, Oct1, and Oatp2 were decreased and basolateral ATP-binding cassette transporters such as Mrp3 and Mrp4 were increased by the CCl(4) treatment. On the other hand, canalicular Mrp2 and Bsep were decreased, but Mdr1 was increased. However, the transporter system for CMZ has not been identified yet. In conclusion, we clarified that the fecal and urinary excretory profiles of CMZ were changed clearly depending on the serum AST and ALT levels in liver dysfunction. The changes in the CMZ excretory pathway might be responsible for the changes in the expression of drug transporters.

Dephosphorylation of ribosomal protein P0 in response to troglitazone-induced cytotoxicity.

Troglitazone (TRO)-induced cytotoxicity was investigated in HepG2 cells. The cells were exposed to TRO as well as rosiglitazone (RSG) at concentrations of 0, 25, 50 and 75 microM for 48 h. Total proteins were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis and visualized by silver staining. We focused on a protein spot at an approximate molecular weight of 35 kDa and isoelectric point (pI) of 5.7, which appeared only with the cytotoxic concentrations (50 and 75 microM) of TRO, but not with the low concentration (25 microM) of TRO or any concentrations of RSG. This protein spot was subjected to amino acid sequence analysis and identified as ribosomal protein P0 (P0). Interestingly, without any significant induction of its protein and mRNA, P0 was dephosphorylated depending on the concentration- and time-dependent manner of TRO-induced cytotoxicity. Pretreatment with a general caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD.fmk, prevented cleavage of caspase-3 but demonstrated a slight improvement of cytotoxicity induced by TRO. Thus, these effects could not prevent the dephosphorylation of P0. Our results strongly suggest that a post-translational modification, dephosphorylation, of P0 is associated with TRO-induced cytotoxicity.

Simultaneous measurement of gene expression for hepatotoxicity in thioacetamide-administered rats by DNA microarrays.

DNA microarray technology was developed as a tool for simultaneously measuring a number of gene expression changes, and has been applied for investigations of toxicity assessments of chemicals. In this study, we used a typical hepatotoxicant, thioacetamide (TA), to find correlations between the extent of hepatotoxicity and certain gene expression patterns or specific gene expression profiles. TA was intraperitoneally administered at high (400 mg/kg), medium (150 mg/kg) or low (50 mg/kg) dose (four rats per group) and then the serum and liver were collected at the indicated time (6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 h). Serum biochemical markers were measured and hepatic mRNA expression profiles were analyzed by a DNA microarray. Serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were increased by TA-administration in a dose-dependent manner and reached the maximum at 24h. Hierarchical clustering analysis of all dosage groups revealed in 2 major clusters, distinguished by an early (6 and 12h) and a late (24, 36 and 48 h) phase. The early and late phase clusters were sorted in time- and dose-dependent manners. The major gene expression profile obtained by quality-threshold (QT) clustering analysis showed the same maximal toxic time as that estimated by the serum biochemical markers. The individual expression profiles of the candidate genes selected in our previous studies and the simultaneous gene expression patterns measured by five typical hepatotoxicants including TA also reflected the hepatotoxicity of TA. These findings suggest that the potential toxic effects appearing as gene expression changes are independent of the dosage of TA. This study suggested that the major gene expression profile estimated by QT clustering would be a sensitive marker of hepatotoxicity.

Chaperone proteins involved in troglitazone-induced toxicity in human hepatoma cell lines.

Troglitazone (TRO), an effective thiazolidinedione antidiabetic agent, was reported to produce idiosyncratic hepatotoxic effects in some individuals. In contrast, rosiglitazone (RSG), in the same group of agents, has no significant toxic effects and now is widely used. In this study, human hepatoma (HepG2) cell lines were exposed to various doses of TRO as well as RSG (0, 25, 50, and 75 microM) for 48 h. Cell lysates were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis, and the gels were stained with coomassie brilliant blue to compare the spot profiles. The greatest protein expression at a MW of 75 kDa and isoelectric point of 5 was specifically increased with TRO treatments of 50 and 75 microM. The spot was identified as a mixture of immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein (BiP) and, to a lesser extent, protein disulfide isomerase-related protein (PDIrp). Immunoblot analyses showed that the BiP protein was dose-dependently increased by TRO treatment and, to a lower degree, by RSG. These effects were also correlated with the high induction of BiP mRNA by TRO (50 and 75 microM) and the lower induction by RSG. However, both treatments showed no significant effects on PDIrp expression. The toxic effects of TRO in relation to the overexpression of BiP were also demonstrated in HLE cells, another human hepatoma cell line. In HLE cells, the inhibition of BiP expression by small interference RNA rendered cells more susceptible to the toxic effects of TRO. These results suggest that the overexpression of BiP is a defense mechanism of the endoplasmic reticulum in response to TRO-induced toxicity.

Relationship between hepatic gene expression profiles and hepatotoxicity in five typical hepatotoxicant-administered rats.

In the field of gene expression analysis, DNA microarray technology has a major impact on many different areas including toxicogenomics, such as in predicting the adverse effects of new drug candidates and improving the process of risk assessment and safety evaluation. In this study, we investigated whether there is relationship between the hepatotoxic phenotypes and gene expression profiles of hepatotoxic chemicals measured by DNA microarray analyses. Sprague-Dawley rats (6 weeks old) were administered five hepatotoxicants: acetaminophen (APAP), bromobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, dimethylnitrosamine, and thioacetamide. Serum biochemical markers for liver toxicity were measured to estimate the maximal toxic time of each chemical. Hepatic mRNA was isolated, and the gene expression profiles were analyzed by DNA microarray containing 1,097 drug response genes, such as cytochrome P450s, other phase I and phase II enzymes, nuclear receptors, signal transducers, and transporters. All the chemicals tested generated specific gene expression patterns. APAP was sorted to a different cluster from the other four chemicals. From the gene expression profiles and maximal toxic time estimated by serum biochemical markers, we identified 10 up-regulated genes and 10 down-regulated genes as potential markers of hepatotoxicity. By Quality-Threshold (QT) clustering analysis, we identified major up- and down-regulated expression patterns in each group. Interestingly, the average gene expression patterns from the QT clustering were correlated with the mean value profiles from the biochemical markers. Furthermore, this correlation was observed at any extent of hepatotoxicity. In this study, we identified 17 potential toxicity markers, and those expression profiles could estimate the maximal toxic time independently of the hepatotoxicity levels. This expression profile analysis could be one of the useful tools for evaluating a potential hepatotoxicant in the drug development process.

Detection of initiating potential of non-genotoxic carcinogens in a two-stage hepatocarcinogenesis study in rats.

We previously reported a toxicogenomics-based prediction model for hepatocarcinogens in which the expression patterns of signature genes following repeated doses of either genotoxic or non genotoxic compounds were similar. Based on the results of our prediction model, we hypothesized that repeated doses of non-genotoxic carcinogens might have initiating potential. Here, we conducted a two stage hepatocarcinogenesis study in rats exposed to the initiating agent nitrosodiethylamine (DEN), and hepatotoxic compounds thioacetamide (TAA), methapyrilene (MP) and acetaminophen (APAP) for 1-2 weeks followed by the liver tumor promoter phenobarbital (PB). The duration of initial treatment was determined based on positive results from our prediction model. Combined treatment of 3 or 30 mg/kg of genotoxic DEN and PB induced marked increases in altered hepatocellular foci and a DEN dose-dependent increase in the number and area of glutathione S-transferase-placental form (GST-P)-positive foci. A low number of altered hepatocellular foci were also observed in rats treated with TAA at a dose of 45 mg/kg.MP at a dose of 100 mg/kg induced a very low number of foci, but APAP did not. Hierarchical clustering analysis using gene expression data revealed that 2-week treatment with TAA at a dose of 30 mg/kg and MP at 45 mg/kg induced specific expression of DNA damage-related genes, similar to 1-week treatment with DEN at a dose of 30 mg/kg. These results suggest that TAA and MP induce DNA damage, which partially supports our hypothesis. Although this study does not indicate whether tumor growth in response to these compounds can be assessed in this model, our results suggest that cumulative treatment with non genotoxic TAA might have initiating potential in the liver.

miRNA expression atlas in male rat.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small (~22 nucleotide) noncoding RNAs that play pivotal roles in regulation of gene expression. The value of miRNAs as circulating biomarkers is now broadly recognized; such tissue-specific biomarkers can be used to monitor tissue injury and several pathophysiological conditions in organs. In addition, miRNA profiles of normal organs and tissues are important for obtaining a better understanding of the source of modulated miRNAs in blood and how those modulations reflect various physiological and toxicological conditions. This work was aimed at creating an miRNA atlas in rats, as part of a collaborative effort with the Toxicogenomics Informatics Project in Japan (TGP2). We analyzed genome-wide miRNA profiles of 55 different organs and tissues obtained from normal male rats using miRNA arrays. The work presented herein represents a comprehensive dataset derived from normal samples profiled in a single study. Here we present the whole dataset with miRNA profiles of multiple organs, as well as precise information on experimental procedures and organ-specific miRNAs identified in this dataset.

Comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation and gene expression of rat liver in a 2-stage hepatocarcinogenesis model.

Recent studies have shown that epigenetic alterations correlate with carcinogenesis in various tissues. Identification of these alterations might help characterize the early stages of carcinogenesis. We comprehensively analyzed DNA methylation and gene expression in livers obtained from rats exposed to nitrosodiethylamine (DEN) followed by a promoter of hepatic carcinogenesis, phenobarbital (PB). The combination of DEN and PB induced marked increases in number and area of glutathione S-transferase-placental form (GST-P)-positive foci in the liver. In the liver of rats that received 30 mg/kg of DEN, pathway analysis revealed alterations of common genes in terms of gene expression and DNA methylation, and that these alterations were related to immune responses. Hierarchical clustering analysis of the expression of common genes from public data obtained through the Toxicogenomics Project-Genomics Assisted Toxicity Evaluation system (TG-GATEs) showed that carcinogenic compounds clustered together. MBD-seq and GeneChip analysis indicated that major histocompatibility complex class Ib gene RT1-CE5, which has an important role in antigen presentation, was hypomethylated around the promoter region and specifically induced in the livers of DEN-treated rats. Further, immunohistochemical analysis indicated that the co-localization of GST-P and protein homologous to RT1-CE5 was present at the foci of some regions. These results suggest that common genes were altered in terms of both DNA methylation and expression in livers, with preneoplastic foci indicating carcinogenic potential, and that immune responses are involved in early carcinogenesis. In conclusion, the present study identified a specific profile of DNA methylation and gene expression in livers with preneoplastic foci. Early epigenetic perturbations of immune responses might correlate with the early stages of hepatocarcinogenesis.

An in vitro drug-induced hepatotoxicity screening system using CYP3A4-expressing and gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase knockdown cells.

Drug-induced hepatotoxicity is often caused by CYP-dependent activation of the drugs into reactive metabolites. CYP3A4 is one of the main isoforms involved in the metabolic activation of drugs. In this study, an adenovirus vector expressing CYP3A4 (AdCYP3A4) was constructed. After 3days infection of AdCYP3A4, the testosterone 6beta-hydroxylase activity reached to 325pmol/min/mg protein in H4IIE (rat hepatoma) cells. To knockdown the gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase heavy chain subunit (GCSh) and decrease the intrinsic glutathione (GSH) level, we used an adenovirus vector with short hairpin RNA against rat GCSh (AdGCSh-shRNA). Three days infection of AdGCSh-shRNA and AdCYP3A4 simultaneously with H4IIE cells decreased the intracellular GSH level by 50-60% without affecting the expression level of CYP3A4. Using this cell-based system sensitive to the cytotoxicity of reactive metabolites, drugs known for their hepatotoxicity were evaluated. As a result, troglitazone, flutamide, and acetaminophen caused significant decreases of cell viability in AdCYP3A4/AdGCSh-shRNA group compared to the other groups (AdGFP, AdCYP3A4, AdGFP/AdGCSh-shRNA groups), indicating that reactive metabolite(s) produced by CYP3A4 and subsequently conjugated by GSH would be involved in the cytotoxicity. These results suggest that this cell-based assay system expressing CYP3A4 with GCSh knockdown would be useful for the prediction of CYP3A4-mediated cytotoxicity in preclinical drug development.

Regulation of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 and lipoprotein lipase by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), a ligand-activated transcriptional factor, mediates the transcriptional activation of a battery of genes encoding drug metabolism enzymes. In the present study, we investigated the hepatic mRNA expression profile in Ahr-null (Ahr KO) mice compared to wild-type mice by microarray analysis to find new Ahr target genes. Pooled total RNA samples of liver extracted from 7- and 60-week-old Ahr KO or wild-type mice were studied by DNA microarray representing 19,867 genes. It was demonstrated that 23 genes were up-regulated and 20 genes were down-regulated over 2 fold in Ahr KO mice compared with wild-type mice commonly within the different age groups. We focused on insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (Igfbp-1) and lipoprotein lipase (Lpl) that were up-regulated in Ahr KO mice. The higher expression in Ahr KO mice compared to wild-type mice were confirmed by real-time RT-PCR analysis. In the wild-type mice but not in the Ahr KO mice, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) treatment increased the Igfbp-1 and Lpl mRNA levels. The expression profile of Igfbp-1 protein was consistent with that of Igfbp-1 mRNA. Since Lpl is the primary enzyme responsible for hydrolysis of lipids in lipoproteins, the serum triglyceride levels were determined. Indeed, the serum triglyceride levels in Ahr KO mice was lower than that in wild-type mice in accordance with the Lpl mRNA levels. Contrary to our expectation, TCDD treatment significantly increased the serum triglyceride levels in wild-type, but did not in Ahr KO mice. These results suggest that serum triglyceride levels are not correlated with hepatic Lpl expression levels. In the present study, we found that Ahr paradoxically regulates Igfbp-1 and Lpl expressions in the liver.

Knock down of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase in rat causes acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity.

Drug-induced hepatotoxicity is mainly caused by hepatic glutathione (GSH) depletion. In general, the activity of rodent glutathione S-transferase is 10 to 20 times higher than that of humans, which could make the prediction of drug-induced hepatotoxicity in human more difficult. Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (gamma-GCS) mainly regulates de novo synthesis of GSH in mammalian cells and plays a central role in the antioxidant capacity of cells. In this study, we constructed a GSH-depletion experimental rat model for the prediction of human hepatotoxicity. An adenovirus vector with short hairpin RNA against rat gamma-GCS heavy chain subunit (GCSh) (AdGCSh-shRNA) was constructed and used to knock down the GCSh. In in vitro study in H4IIE cells, a rat hepatoma cell line, GCSh mRNA and protein were significantly decreased by 80% and GSH was significantly decreased by 50% 3 days after AdGCSh-shRNA infection. In the in vivo study in rat, the hepatic GSH level was decreased by 80% 14 days after a single dose of AdGCSh-shRNA (2 x 10(11) pfu/ml/body), and this depletion continued for at least 2 weeks. Using this GSH knockdown rat model, acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity was shown to be significantly potentiated compared with normal rats. This is the first report of a GSH knockdown rat model, which could be useful for highly sensitive tests of acute and subacute toxicity for drug candidates in preclinical drug development.