Whole-genome sequencing in multiplex families with psychoses reveals mutations in the SHANK2 and SMARCA1 genes segregating with illness.

A current focus in psychiatric genetics is detection of multiple common risk alleles through very large genome-wide association study analyses. Yet families do exist, albeit rare, that have multiple affected members who are presumed to have a similar inherited cause to their illnesses. We hypothesized that within some of these families there may be rare highly penetrant mutations that segregate with illness. In this exploratory study, the genomes of 90 individuals across nine families were sequenced. Each family included a minimum of three available relatives affected with a psychotic illness and three available unaffected relatives. Twenty-six variants were identified that are private to a family, alter protein sequence, and are transmitted to all sequenced affected individuals within the family. In one family, seven siblings with schizophrenia spectrum disorders each carry a novel private missense variant within the SHANK2 gene. This variant lies within the consensus SH3 protein-binding motif by which SHANK2 may interact with post-synaptic glutamate receptors. In another family, four affected siblings and their unaffected mother each carry a novel private missense variant in the SMARCA1 gene on the X chromosome. Both variants represent candidates that may be causal for psychotic disorders when considered in the context of their transmission pattern and known gene and disease biology.

Crystal structure of the amino-terminal domain of N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein.

The cytosolic ATPase N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein (NSF) disassembles complexes of membrane-bound proteins known as SNAREs, an activity essential for vesicular trafficking. The amino-terminal domain of NSF (NSF-N) is required for the interaction of NSF with the SNARE complex through the adaptor protein alpha-SNAP. The crystal structure of NSF-N reveals two subdomains linked by a single stretch of polypeptide. A polar interface between the two subdomains indicates that they can move with respect to one another during the catalytic cycle of NSF. Structure-based sequence alignments indicate that in addition to NSF orthologues, the p97 family of ATPases contain an amino-terminal domain of similar structure.

Protein-protein interactions in intracellular membrane fusion.

The fusion of intracellular vesicles with their target membranes is an essential feature of the compartmental structure of eukaryotic cells. This process requires proteins that dictate the targeting of a vesicle to the correct cellular location, mediate bilayer fusion and, in some systems, regulate the precise time at which fusion occurs. Recent biophysical and structural studies of these proteins have begun to provide a foundation for understanding their functions at a molecular level.

Three-dimensional structure of the neuronal-Sec1-syntaxin 1a complex.

Syntaxin 1a and neuronal Sec1 (nSec1) form an evolutionarily conserved heterodimer that is essential for vesicle trafficking and membrane fusion. The crystal structure of the nSec1-syntaxin 1a complex, determined at 2.6 A resolution, reveals that major conformational rearrangements occur in syntaxin relative to both the core SNARE complex and isolated syntaxin. We identify regions of the two proteins that seem to determine the binding specificity of particular Sec1 proteins for syntaxin isoforms, which is likely to be important for the fidelity of membrane trafficking. The structure also indicates mechanisms that might couple the action of upstream effector proteins to conformational changes in syntaxin 1a and nSec1 that lead to core complex formation and membrane fusion.

Self-association of the H3 region of syntaxin 1A. Implications for intermediates in SNARE complex assembly.

Intracellular membrane fusion requires SNARE proteins found on the vesicle and target membranes. SNAREs associate by formation of a parallel four-helix bundle, and it has been suggested that formation of this complex promotes membrane fusion. The membrane proximal region of the cytoplasmic domain of the SNARE syntaxin 1A, designated H3, contributes one of the four helices to the SNARE complex. In the crystal structure of syntaxin 1A H3, four molecules associate as a homotetramer composed of two pairs of parallel helices that are anti-parallel to each other. The H3 oligomer observed in the crystals is also found in solution, as assessed by gel filtration and chemical cross-linking studies. The crystal structure reveals that the highly conserved Phe-216 packs against conserved Gln-226 residues present on the anti-parallel pair of helices. Modeling indicates that Phe-216 prevents parallel tetramer formation. Mutation of Phe-216 to Leu appears to allow formation of parallel tetramers, whereas mutation to Ala destabilizes the protein. These results indicate that Phe-216 has a role in preventing formation of stable parallel helical bundles, thus favoring the interaction of the H3 region of syntaxin 1a with other proteins involved in membrane fusion.

Crystal structure and biophysical properties of a complex between the N-terminal SNARE region of SNAP25 and syntaxin 1a.

SNARE proteins are required for intracellular membrane fusion. In the neuron, the plasma membrane SNAREs syntaxin 1a and SNAP25 bind to VAMP2 found on neurotransmitter-containing vesicles. These three proteins contain "SNARE regions" that mediate their association into stable tetrameric coiled-coil structures. Syntaxin 1a contributes one such region, designated H3, and SNAP25 contributes two SNARE regions to the fusogenic complex with VAMP2. Syntaxin 1a H3 (syn1aH3) and SNAP25 can form a stable assembly, which can then be bound by VAMP2 to form the full SNARE complex. Here we show that syn1aH3 can also form a stable but kinetically trapped complex with the N-terminal SNARE region of SNAP25 (S25N). The crystal structure of this complex reveals an extended parallel four-helix bundle similar to that of the core SNARE and the syn1aH3-SNAP25 complexes. The inherent ability of syn1aH3 and S25N to associate stably in vitro implies that the intracellular fusion machinery must prevent formation of, or remove, any non-productive complexes. Comparison with the syn1aH3-SNAP25 complex suggests that the linkage of the N- and C-terminal SNAP25 SNARE regions is kinetically advantageous in preventing formation of the non-productive syn1aH3-S25N complex. We also demonstrate that the syn1aH3-S25N complex can be disassembled by alpha-SNAP and N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor.